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	<title>Ausgabe 2023 Archive - Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</title>
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		<title>Heinrich Stiehler: „Nacht“. Die rumänische Schoah in Geschichte und Literatur </title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/heinrich-stiehler-nacht-die-rumaenische-schoah-in-geschichte-und-literatur/</link>
		
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		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 14:08:27 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Rezensionen]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=843</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>„Nacht“. Die rumänische Schoah in Geschichte und Literatur, Wien: Verlag der Theodor Kramer Gesellschaft 2019, 131 Seiten. Noch immer ist die Auseinandersetzung mit der Verfolgung und Vernichtung der jüdischen Bevölkerung in Rumänien bzw. in während des Zweiten Weltkriegs rumänisch besetzten Gebieten überlagert durch die Epoche des „realen Sozialismus“ und durch die vorherrschende Selbstwahrnehmung als „Opfer [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/heinrich-stiehler-nacht-die-rumaenische-schoah-in-geschichte-und-literatur/">Heinrich Stiehler: „Nacht“. Die rumänische Schoah in Geschichte und Literatur </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
]]></description>
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<p>„Nacht“. Die rumänische Schoah in Geschichte und Literatur, Wien: Verlag der Theodor Kramer Gesellschaft 2019, 131 Seiten.</p>



<p>Noch immer ist die Auseinandersetzung mit der Verfolgung und Vernichtung der jüdischen Bevölkerung in Rumänien bzw. in während des Zweiten Weltkriegs rumänisch besetzten Gebieten überlagert durch die Epoche des „realen Sozialismus“ und durch die vorherrschende Selbstwahrnehmung als „Opfer der Geschichte“. So setzte die historische Rekonstruktion und Aufarbeitung des Holocaust in Rumänien entweder durch im Ausland lebende rumänische Wissenschaftler (z.B. Radu Ioanid am Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C.) oder erst auf äußeren politischen Druck hin – im Vorfeld des NATO-Beitritts 2004 – ein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bis heute dominieren wissenschaftliche und journalistische Dokumentationen über die Ära des Stalinismus, über das Ceauşescu-Regime oder die Securitate den politischen Buchmarkt Rumäniens. Dagegen wirken die seit den neunziger Jahren vor allem durch Victor Neumann oder Lya Benjamin verfassten Monographien sowie die Veröffentlichungen des auf jüdische Themen spezialisierten Hasefer-Verlages oder des Nationalen Institutes zum Studium des Holocaust in Rumänien (Institutul Naţional pentru Studierea Holocaustului din România, INSHR) zumeist wie einsame Mahnungen. Wie dringlich die breite Auseinandersetzung mit dem Holocaust in Rumänien ist, zeigt der im April 2020 veröffentlichte Bericht des INSHR über Antisemitismus und Holocaustleugnung. Danach ergänzen sich „analoge“ Formen wie die Schändung von Synagogen, Friedhöfen und Gedenkstätten mit zunehmend „virtuellen“ Formen im Internet und der politischen Öffentlichkeit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Umso mehr ist das Erscheinen der hier anzuzeigenden Publikation zu begrüßen, wenngleich auch diese Studie nicht in Rumänien, sondern in Österreich verlegt wurde und der Autor ein deutscher, allerdings Rumänien eng verbundener, ist oder vielmehr war. Denn die Freude, diese Studie besprechen und damit vielleicht noch etwas bekannter machen zu dürfen, ist durch den Verlust eines außergewöhnlichen Wissenschaftlers und Autors überschattet.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Heinrich Stiehler, ausgewiesener Kenner der rumänischen Literatur (z.B. als Herausgeber der deutschen Ausgabe der Werke von Panaït Istraţi), verstarb nach langer Krankheit im April 2023. Als eine seiner letzten Publikationen legte er mit der 2019 erschienenen Schrift <em>„Nacht“. Die rumänische Schoah in Geschichte und Literatur</em> eine an Umfang kleine, an Inhalt und Analyse aber bedeutende Studie vor. Darin gelang ihm souverän, auf wenigen einführenden Seiten die wesentlichen historischen Entwicklungslinien, Akteure und Hintergründe der Judenverfolgung und Judenvernichtung im faschistischen Rumänien zwischen 1941 und 1944 zu skizzieren. An die profunde Einführung schließt sich Stiehlers „Stationendrama“ an, wie er es selbst nennt. In vier geographisch basierten Kapiteln stellt er jeweils Duos aus prominenten und weniger bekannten, zumeist jüdischen Schriftstellern aus bzw. über Bukarest (Filip Brunea-Fox, Mihail Sebastian), Iaşi (Curzio Malaparte, Aurel Baranga), Cernowitz/Cernăuţi (Isak Weißglas, Robert Flinker) und Transnistrien (Immanuel Weißglas, Edgar Hilsenrath) vor, die auf Rumänisch, Deutsch oder Italienisch über den Holocaust in Rumänien schrieben.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ergänzt wird die literarisch zentrierte Darstellung („statt eines Nachwortes“) mit kurzgefassten „Notizen zu den Roma in Transnistrien“ und damit jener Bevölkerungsgruppe, die gemeinhin im Schatten der Holocaustforschung und &#8211; erinnerung steht. Biographische Informationen zu den vorgestellten Autoren beschließen den Band.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Die literarischen Stationen des von H.Stiehler entfalteten historisch-politischen Dramas vermitteln jeweils Auszüge aus dem Werk der einzelnen Autoren, die den Holocaust in und durch Rumänien in unterschiedlichen Perspektiven (als betroffener Augenzeuge und Verfolgter oder als professioneller Berichterstatter und Erzähler) und in unterschiedlichen Formen (als Roman, fiktionale Reportage, Tagebuch) widerspiegeln. An die Exzerpte schließen stets H.Stiehlers politisch-historische Einordnungen sowie literatur- und textkritische Analysen an, die wiederum andere historische und literarische Quellen heranziehen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>So entsteht auf wenigen Zeilen ein Geflecht aus Geschichte, Politik und Kultur Rumäniens, wie es – nicht nur zu diesem Thema – in dieser Dichte und Reflexion bisher wohl kaum geboten wurde. Denn H.Stiehler war beides: ein an der Frankfurter „Kritischen Theorie“ geschulter Geist, ein versierter Romanist mit einem starken Bezug zur französischen Literatur und ein Kenner der Geschichte und Kultur Rumäniens.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Der italienische Romancier Curzio Malaparte (anfangs Mitglied der italienischen faschistischen Partei PNF) erscheint hier in einer Reihe mit rumänischen Autoren, da er als Kriegskorrespondent für den Mailänder <em>Corriere della Sera</em> 1940 bis 1945 von der Ostfront und dem Balkan berichtete. Den nicht durch eigene Augenzeugenschaft beglaubigten Verlauf des antijüdischen und antikommunistischen Pogroms von Iaşi im Juni 1941, verübt durch rumänische und deutsche Soldaten, den rumänischen Geheimdienst und tausende rumänische Zivilisten, verarbeitete er literarisch im seinerzeit erfolgreichen, heute weitgehend vergessenen Roman „Kaputt“ (1944), aus dem H.Stiehler ausführlich zitiert.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Sicher nicht zufällig nennt H.Stiehler seine Monographie in Anlehnung an den Ghettoroman von Edgar Hilsenrath ebenfalls „Nacht“, diesmal in Anführungszeichen. „Nacht“ steht hier wohl als eine Metapher für das Schicksal der mehr als eine viertel Million ermordeter rumänischer Juden oder jüdischer Rumänen während des Faschismus. H.Stiehler bevorzugt den Begriff der „Schoah“ anstelle des seit den späten siebziger Jahren zumeist verwendeten „Holocaust“ (ungefähr: „Brandopfer“ oder „Großbrand“), weil dieser Terminus „eine dem NS-Regimes eigene technische Dimension des Massenmordes“ impliziere, „die für die rumänischen Verhältnisse so nicht zutrifft“. Deshalb erscheint ihm ein Begriff für „Verderben“ oder „Heimsuchung“ angemessener, wie er „Schoah“ darstellt (S. 6f).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Im einführenden Kapitel („Zur Geschichte des rumänischen Antisemitismus<em>“</em>) stellt Stiehler Intellektuelle (z.B. Nicolae Iorga, Mircea Eliade oder Emil Cioran) als Vordenker und zum Teil auch Organisatoren von Konzepten der zunächst ökonomischen wie sozialen Exklusion und später der physischen Vernichtung dar – was aufschlussreiche Parallelen zu deutschen Hochschullehrern und Wissenschaftlern eröffnet, die nicht selten die akademischen Lehrer der jungen rumänischen Elite waren. Gestützt auf seine überzeugende Darstellung resümiert H.Stiehler: „Sieht man vom technologischen Aspekt ab, steht die rumänische Vernichtungspolitik der deutschen in nichts nach“ (S. 23).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dass er in seiner Argumentation den 2018 erschienenen, neben Ungarn und der Slowakei auch Rumänien behandelnden Band 13 der monumentalen Quellenedition <em>Die Verfolgung und Ermordung der europäischen Juden durch das nationalsozialistische Deutschland 1933-1945</em> nicht mehr berücksichtigen konnte, ist bedauerlich, zumal dort politische, administrative und literarische Dokumente des Holocaust in Rumänien versammelt sind (u.a. ein Auszug aus dem Tagebuch von Mihail Sebastian zum Pogrom in Bukarest im Januar 1941).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zu den Verdiensten von H.Stiehlers Monographie zählt – neben den bereits genannten – eine durchgängig kritische und differenzierende Haltung zum Thema und zu Personen, die auch die Widersprüchlichkeit z.B. eines Mihail Sebastian nicht ausblendet, der (wie Mircea Eliade) als Redakteur einer der faschistischen „Eisernen Garde“ nahestehenden Tageszeitung (<em>Cuvântul</em>) tätig war und später als Jude selbst Opfer faschistischer Repression wurde (er erhielt Berufsverbot als Rechtsanwalt).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Im Tableau der vorgestellten Literaten fehlt leider eine literarische Stimme aus dem während des Holocaust zu einem großen Teil ungarisch besetzten Transsylvanien/Siebenbürgen ebenso wie die einer Autorin, obwohl z.B. mit Rose Ausländer (Cernowitz/Cernăuţi) eine solche inzwischen den Weg in den Kanon der rumänischen/deutschsprachigen/jüdischen Literatur gefunden hat. Dass und warum dies bis heute nicht mehr rumänischen jüdischen wie nicht-jüdischen Autorinnen gelungen ist, wäre mehr als eine eigene Studie wert.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Es ist sehr zu wünschen, dass Heinrich Stiehlers „Nacht“ bald ins Rumänische übersetzt wird (dann mit Zitaten aus den rumänischen Originalquellen anstelle indirekter Zitate) und damit einem breiteren Publikum, vor allem aber Schüler/-innen und Studierenden, zugänglich wird. Dies wäre gewiss ganz in seinem Sinne.&nbsp;</p>



<p class="has-text-align-right"><em>Peter Chroust</em></p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/heinrich-stiehler-nacht-die-rumaenische-schoah-in-geschichte-und-literatur/">Heinrich Stiehler: „Nacht“. Die rumänische Schoah in Geschichte und Literatur </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<item>
		<title>Mădălina Diaconu: Ideengeschichte Rumäniens</title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/madalina-diaconu-ideengeschichte-rumaeniens/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 14:05:06 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Rezensionen]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=841</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Ideengeschichte Rumäniens, Paderborn u. a.: Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh 2021, 346 Seiten. Die hier zu besprechende Publikation basiert auf einer Vortragsreihe der an der Universität Wien lehrenden Philosophin und Lektorin Mădălina Diaconu.&#160; Zunächst ist zu klären: Was meint „Ideengeschichte“ und was meint „Rumänien“ bzw. „Rumänisch“?&#160; Zum Begriff der „Ideengeschichte“: M. Diaconu definiert Ideengeschichte als Sozialgeschichte, die [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/madalina-diaconu-ideengeschichte-rumaeniens/">Mădălina Diaconu: Ideengeschichte Rumäniens</a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p>Ideengeschichte Rumäniens, Paderborn u. a.: Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh 2021, 346 Seiten.</p>



<p>Die hier zu besprechende Publikation basiert auf einer Vortragsreihe der an der Universität Wien lehrenden Philosophin und Lektorin Mădălina Diaconu.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zunächst ist zu klären: Was meint „Ideengeschichte“ und was meint „Rumänien“ bzw. „Rumänisch“?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zum Begriff der „Ideengeschichte“: M. Diaconu definiert Ideengeschichte als <em>Sozialgeschichte</em>, die nicht nur „Texte“ als Primärquellen untersucht, sondern zugleich auch „die Bedingungen, unter denen Theorien entstanden, ebenso wie ihre Zirkulation und Rezeption“ (S. 2). Dabei ergibt sich die Frage, ob „Texte“ im engeren Sinne schriftlicher Dokumente zu verstehen sind oder z.B. im Sinne Derridas („Text ist alles“). Und: soll eine Ideengeschichte ausschließlich philosophische, politische oder literarische Texte umfassen oder auch Werke der bildenden oder darstellenden Kunst? Zu denken wäre hier z.B. an Constantin Brâncuşi mit seinen starken Bezügen zur rumänischen Folklore (z.B. die „Unendliche Säule“ oder der Zaubervogel „Pasărea Măiastră“), aber auch an Architektur, traditionelle und konzertante Musik, die oftmals auf überliefertes „Material“ zurückgreift (z.B. George Enescu in Sonaten, Quartetten und in seinen „Rumänischen Rhapsodien“). Auch das seit den 1920er Jahren an Bedeutung zunehmende Medium des Films ist zu bedenken. In allen genannten Feldern findet sich stets der Widerstreit zwischen „autochthonen“ und „westlich-urbanen“ Konzepten. M. Diaconu beantwortet die Frage nach den „Texten“ indirekt durch die Auswahl der präsentierten Autoren und Theorien. Mit beeindruckender Souveränität entfaltet M. Diaconu ein Panorama aus Philosophen, Literaten, Wissenschaftlern und Politikern. Bildende Künstler wie Constantin Brâncuşi werden dagegen nur am Rande erwähnt.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Das dennoch weitgefasste Spektrum ordnet die Autorin einem Tableau von 12 <em>Problemen </em>zu, „die wiederum in einem spezifischen Kontext generiert wurden und deren Behandlung und Lösung sich nicht auf bloße Theorie beschränken kann“ (S. 2):&nbsp;</p>



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>die (verspätete) Bildung der rumänischen Nation</li>



<li>die Kontroverse um die lediglich „simulierte“ Modernisierung Rumäniens (insbes. zu Titu Maiorescus Theorie der „inhaltlosen Formen“ im Bereich von Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kultur)</li>



<li>Stadt und Land zwischen Ideologie und Politik</li>



<li>Tradition und Moderne in den Transformationen der Zwischenkriegszeit</li>



<li>die Frage des dakisch-lateinischen Ursprungs des rumänischen Volkes (Geschichte und Mythos des „Autochthonen“)</li>



<li>Junge Intellektuelle der Zwischenkriegszeit als Protagonisten einer neuen nationalen Kultur Rumäniens (mit deren Perzeption außerhalb des Landes)</li>



<li>Kulturelle Identitäten zwischen Balkan, orthodoxer Kirche (Osteuropa) und dem „Westen“</li>



<li>Kulturpolitik im „kommunistischen“ Rumänien</li>



<li>Identitätssuche nach dem Zusammenbruch des „kommunistischen“ Regimes 1989</li>



<li>auf dem Weg nach „Europa“ (die Entwicklung nach 2000)</li>



<li>Juden und Roma in Rumänien</li>



<li>Ungarn und Deutsche in Rumänien.</li>
</ol>



<p>Jedes dieser Kapitel spannt einen zeitlichen Bogen vom Beginn der Moderne in Rumänien, d.h. in Siebenbürgen seit dem 18. Jahrhundert, in den Fürstentümern der Walachei und Moldau seit Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts bis in die Gegenwart (2018). Womit zugleich ein weiterer Vorzug dieser Monographie benannt ist. Mit dem weiten historischen Radius verlässt M. Diaconu die häufige Zentrierung auf die immer wieder beschworene und glorifizierte intellektuelle Blüte der Zwischenkriegszeit Rumäniens, die in Wahrheit eher ein Projekt einer kleinen, zumeist (mittel- und west)„europäisch“ orientierten Elite war.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Viele der behandelten Problemfelder weisen über Rumänien hinaus: sei es das Thema des (verspäteten) <em>Nation building</em> (Kap. 1) oder die in Osteuropa bis heute virulente Frage der „Identität“ der eigenen Nation zwischen Ost- und West- bzw. Mitteleuropa (Kap. 4, Kap. 6, Kap. 7). Gleiches gilt für den Dualismus zwischen Tradition und Moderne, versinnbildlicht im Spannungsverhältnis von Stadt und Land. Auch das Thema der nach 1918 in Osteuropa oftmals – durch externe Mächte – willkürlich gezogenen neuen Grenzen und der damit geschaffenen, nicht selten blutig ausgetragenen „Minderheitenfrage“ betrifft bis heute alle osteuropäischen Staaten.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Im 8. Kapitel wiederum findet sich eine erhellende Entmystifizierung der Institution Zensur im „kommunistischen“ Rumänien, die nach ihrer offiziellen Aufhebung im Jahre 1977 dank vorauseilender Selbstzensur offenbar noch effektiver funktionierte als zuvor (S. 171-176). Im 9. und 10. Kapitel liefert M. Diaconu eine Analyse der – nicht nur in Rumänien – unabgeschlossenen Transformation und der damit verbundenen politischen, sozialen und kulturellen Konfliktlinien und Desillusionierung &#8211; und damit zugleich eine auf die meisten anderen osteuropäischen Staaten übertragbare Darstellung. Die beiden letzten Kapitel widmen sich den vier größten Minderheiten. Während Juden und Roma vor allem unter Aspekten der kulturellen Diskriminierung und politisch-sozialen Ausgrenzung besprochen werden, ist für die ungarisch- bzw. deutschsprachige Bevölkerung umgekehrt eine stabile Tendenz zu kultureller (und vielfach politischer) Abgrenzung und Autonomie kennzeichnend, die langfristig mit dem Verlust eines einstmals vielfältigen intellektuellen Lebens einhergeht: einerseits durch eine Politik der kulturellen Zwangs-Homogenisierung gegen Ungarn und Deutsche, andererseits durch die Abwanderung bedeutender Literaten (z.B. Oskar Pastior, Dieter Schlesak oder der „Aktionsgruppe Banat“).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Diese nur kursorische Auflistung mag bereits verdeutlichen, dass eine „Ideengeschichte“ keineswegs ein intellektuelles Glasperlenspiel bedeutet, nämlich dann, wenn Theorien in politische Praxis umschlagen, wie z.B. bei dem Historiker und konservativen Politiker Nicolae Iorga oder bei der faschistischen „Eisernen Garde“ verbundenen Intellektuellen wie Emil Cioran, Mircea Eliade oder Constantin Noica. „Ideengeschichte“ bedeutet im postkommunistischen Rumänien auch, sich neben dem literarisch-kulturellen Leben dem wachsenden Populismus bei gleichzeitig zunehmender Dominanz politischer Parteien oder einzelner Akteure gegenüber der Legislative zu widmen – mitsamt einer gleichzeitigen Distanzierung, Ent-Politisierung oder Rechts-Politisierung der Wahlbevölkerung. Allesamt Kennzeichen einer <em>Postdemokratie</em> (Colin Crouch) – hier allerdings ohne eine vorausgegangene reale Demokratie. Gerade gegenwärtige populistische Bewegungen in Osteuropa leben von der ideologischen Aufladung der genannten realen oder imaginierten Probleme wie der&nbsp; „Identität“ zwischen Ost und West oder einer „gesunden“ eigenen Tradition im Gegensatz zu einer fremden und dekadenten Moderne. Eine Aufladung, die sie rasch zu nationalistischer Radikalisierung treiben lässt, wenn sich die Bürger/-innen Osteuropas stets aufs Neue als Opfer und Benachteiligte der Geschichte empfinden (wollen).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zur zweiten Definition: Was meint „Rumänien“ bzw. „Rumänisch“? Angesichts der äußerst wechselvollen Geschichte dieses Landes kein leichtes Unterfangen. Zählen doch, je nach historischem Zeitpunkt und politischer Verfasstheit, die Fürstentümer der Walachei und Moldaus, Siebenbürgen/Transsylvanien und das Banat sowie weitere, ebenfalls die territoriale Zugehörigkeit mehrmals wechselnde Regionen wie die Bukowina oder Bessarabien hierzu.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Und was meint in diesem Kontext „Rumänisch“? Sollen hierunter nur Zeugnisse in rumänischer Sprache verstanden werden oder auch Zeugnisse der zahlreichen in Rumänien lebenden Nationalitäten? Und die damit verbundene Frage: Was sind „rumänische“ Autoren? Nur diejenigen, die in Rumänien leben und publizieren, oder auch die zahlreichen freiwilligen oder unfreiwilligen Emigranten, die längst nur noch in anderen Sprachen schreiben (und vielleicht auch denken)?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Die Frage, was unter „Rumänien“ zu verstehen sei, beantwortet M. Diaconu unausgesprochen im Sinne eines unabhängig von politischen Grenzen existierenden sprachlichen und kulturellen Raumes. So bezieht sie (in Kap. 1) die „Siebenbürgische Schule“ (<em>Şcoala Ardeleană</em>) in ihre Darstellung ein, obgleich sich diese intellektuelle Strömung seinerzeit außerhalb der rumänischen Fürstentümer, in der ungarischen Reichshälfte der k.u.k. Monarchie, entfaltete. Etwas anders entscheidet die Autorin bei der Frage, was „rumänische“ Ideengeschichte sei. Hierunter behandelt sie ausführlich auch in Rumänien geborene, aber im Ausland etablierte Autoren, die nur noch in anderen Sprachen publizieren (z.B. Mircea Eliade oder Emil Cioran) und in Rumänien erst nach 1989 rezipiert werden konnten. Andererseits werden ebenso im Ausland wirkende Intellektuelle wie Constantin Brâncuşi nur beiläufig oder Tristan Tzara gar nicht erwähnt (dass rumänischsprachige Autoren z.B. auch der früheren Moldauischen Sowjetrepublik bzw. der heutigen Republik Moldau und anderer Nachbarregionen in einer Ideengeschichte Rumäniens Platz finden müssten, ist der Autorin bewusst).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Damit erscheint auch das Thema des kulturellen Transfers in der Betrachtung – und zwar nicht nur als einseitiger „brain drain“ aus Rumänien. Denn bekanntlich waren die Einflüsse aus den intellektuellen Zentren des 18., 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (Paris, Wien, Berlin) auf das rumänische intellektuelle und politische Leben überaus bedeutend und vielfältig. Dass bedeutende französische Intellektuelle der 1940er und 1950er Jahre (z.B. Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus) oder die „nouvelles philosophes“ der 1970er Jahre (z.B. Michel Foucault) in Rumänien nur äußerst begrenzt wahrgenommen werden konnten, ist der restriktiven, nur durch kurze „Tauwetterperioden“ unterbrochenen restriktiven rumänischen Kulturpolitik zwischen 1947 und 1989 geschuldet.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Schon durch ihre zumeist im Ausland erworbene universitäre Ausbildung wirkten viele Gelehrte und Politiker als „frankophile“ oder „germanophile“ Vermittler und Akteure in den unterschiedlichen Regionen des rumänischen Sprachgebietes. Diese wechselseitigen kulturellen Transfers stellt M. Diaconu in einer Vielzahl biographischer Skizzen kenntnisreich dar.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Vielleicht bietet die wünschenswerte folgende Auflage die Gelegenheit zu einigen Ergänzungen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>So z.B. zur Rolle der Frauen im rumänischen Geistesleben, die bedauerlicherweise nur gestreift wird (S. 204f). Hier wäre zu wünschen gewesen, mehr aus den historischen Studien von Ştefania Mihăilescu, Mihaela Miroiu und Maria Bucur zu erfahren. Wäre es doch wenig überraschend, wenn unter den Ehefrauen oder Lebensgefährtinnen bedeutender rumänischer Intellektueller noch eine Reihe&nbsp; innovativer Philosophinnen, Schriftstellerinnen, Malerinnen oder Komponistinnen zu entdecken wären.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Trotz der an einigen Stellen vorgetragenen kritischen Anmerkungen bleibt zu resümieren: M. Diaconu erschließt mit ihrer Monographie souverän das intellektuelle Panorama Rumäniens entlang einer Zeitachse vom 18. Jahrhundert bis in die Gegenwart und legt die politischen Implikationen und Konsequenzen der darin verhandelten Theorien für die auftretenden Akteure frei. Da es der Autorin gelingt, auch die anspruchsvollsten Themen der Philosophiegeschichte zu vermitteln, wird diese Studie mit Sicherheit zu einem Gewinn für alle Leser/-innen. Mit der „Ideengeschichte Rumäniens“ ist Mădălina Diaconu ein Standardwerk gelungen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Deshalb ist sehr zu wünschen, dass dieses Werk bald ins Rumänische übersetzt wird und damit einem breiteren Publikum, vor allem Schüler/-innen und Studierenden, zugänglich wird.&nbsp;</p>



<p class="has-text-align-right"><em>Peter Chroust</em></p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/madalina-diaconu-ideengeschichte-rumaeniens/">Mădălina Diaconu: Ideengeschichte Rumäniens</a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<title>Hans-Werner Retterath (Hg.): Auslandsdeutsches Schulwesen des 20. Jahrhunderts zwischen ‚Volkstumsarbeit‘ und Auswärtiger Kulturpolitik   </title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/hans-werner-retterath-hg-auslandsdeutsches-schulwesen-des-20-jahrhunderts-zwischen-volkstumsarbeit-und-auswaertiger-kulturpolitik/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 14:01:42 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Rezensionen]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=839</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Auslandsdeutsches Schulwesen des 20. Jahrhunderts zwischen ‚Volkstumsarbeit‘ und Auswärtiger Kulturpolitik, In: Schriftenreihe des Instituts für Volkskunde der Deutschen des östlichen Europa 24. Münster, New York: Waxmann Verlag 2021. 190 S., 10 s/w-Abbildungen.  Der muttersprachliche Unterricht für Angehörige von Minderheiten war in der Geschichte häufig ein Konfliktstoff in spannungsgeladenen gesellschaftlichen Konstellationen zwischen Minorität und Majorität, häufig sogar [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/hans-werner-retterath-hg-auslandsdeutsches-schulwesen-des-20-jahrhunderts-zwischen-volkstumsarbeit-und-auswaertiger-kulturpolitik/">Hans-Werner Retterath (Hg.): Auslandsdeutsches Schulwesen des 20. Jahrhunderts zwischen ‚Volkstumsarbeit‘ und Auswärtiger Kulturpolitik   </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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<p>Auslandsdeutsches Schulwesen des 20. Jahrhunderts zwischen ‚Volkstumsarbeit‘ und Auswärtiger Kulturpolitik, In: Schriftenreihe des Instituts für Volkskunde der Deutschen des östlichen Europa 24. Münster, New York: Waxmann Verlag 2021. 190 S., 10 s/w-Abbildungen. </p>



<p>Der muttersprachliche Unterricht für Angehörige von Minderheiten war in der Geschichte häufig ein Konfliktstoff in spannungsgeladenen gesellschaftlichen Konstellationen zwischen Minorität und Majorität, häufig sogar noch wirkmächtiger als die Frage der ungehinderten Religionsausübung. Die Geschichte Europas im 19./20. Jahrhundert liefert dafür – nicht nur im Osten des Kontinents – eine Vielzahl von Beispielen. Konfliktsituationen ergaben sich nicht nur in restaurativen Systemen wie dem Deutschen Kaiserreich ab 1871 oder in den autoritären Regimes des 20. Jahrhunderts. Auch progressiv verfasste Staaten wie die Französische Dritte Republik hatten manche Schwierigkeiten damit, sprachlichen Minderheiten muttersprachlichen Unterricht zu gewähren, glaubte man doch im politischen Machtzentrun in Paris, dies würde der Einheit der Nation und der republikanischen Gleichheit aller Bürgerinnen und Bürger zuwiderlaufen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Schulische Institutionen für die Angehörigen deutscher Minderheiten im östlichen Europa im 19./20. Jahrhundert sind in den Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften bereits häufig thematisiert worden. Davon zeugen auch die Fallstudien, die Hans-Werner Retterath als Erträge zweier Tagungen am IVDE in Freiburg im Breisgau in diesem Band zusammengefasst hat. Auch das institutionelle Netzwerk, das sich zwischen den Schulen und der Patronage „reichsdeutscher“ und österreichischer Schulbehörden in Form einer Vielzahl von nationalen und konfessionellen Verbänden herausbildete, kann als gut erforscht gelten, einschließlich mancher veränderter Gewichtungen, die sich nach der Machtergreifung der NSDAP im Deutschen Reich ergaben.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Drei Aufsätze des Sammelbandes führen an den Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts zurück. Mit der Entwicklung des Staatlichen Lehrerseminars mit deutscher Unterrichtssprache im damals noch zum Russländischen Reich gehörenden Lodsch (pl. Łódź) befasst sich die Germanistin Krystyna Radziszewska. Eine Vorläuferinstitution hatten deutsche Protestanten in den 1860er-Jahren errichtet, die unter zaristische Obhut kam und bis zur Schließung in der Zweiten Polnischen Republik im Jahr 1932 als Konsequenz einer Reform des polnischen Schulwesens fortbestand. Eindrucksvoll zeigt die Autorin die sich nach den politischen Kontexten wandelnde Innen- und Außenperspektive auf diese Bildungseinrichtung: Während etwa in der Zwischenkriegszeit die Schulakten auf ein einvernehmliches Verhältnis von Deutschen und Polen und die dem Staat gegenüber bezeugte Loyalität von Dozenten und Absolventen schließen lassen, vermittelte die Presse der Weimarer Republik ein Szenario der ständigen Gefährdung und Bedrohtheit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Die Kongruenz von sprachlicher und konfessioneller Identität machte nicht selten protestantische Persönlichkeiten zu Initiatoren deutscher Schulen. Die Historikerin Isabel Röskau-Rydel demonstriert dies am Beispiel der Zöcklerschen Anstalten in Stanislau (ukr. Івано-Франківськ, pl. Stanisławów). Das Ehepaar Theodor und Lillie Zöckler errichtete in der ostgalizischen, damals noch habsburgischen Stadt seit dem ausgehenden 19. Jahrhundert einen Komplex unterschiedlicher Bildungseinrichtungen – vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg ein Kinderheim mit Volksschule –, dann in der polnischen Zwischenkriegszeit unter anderem ein evangelisches Gymnasium und soziale Ausbildungsstätten. Diese angesehenen Schulen, zu deren Absolventen in den 1920er-Jahren zahlreiche Kinder mit jüdischem Hintergrund zählten, bestanden bis zur Okkupation Polens im September 1939 und der Angliederung Ostgaliziens an die UdSSR.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Eine faktische Einflussnahme seitens des Deutschen Reiches lässt sich erst im Beitrag des ungarischen Ethnologen Máté Dávid Tamaska erkennen. In Budapest war 1908 auf Anregung eines Pastors eine Schule für „reichsdeutsche“ Kinder errichtet worden, die aber auch nicht-deutschen Kindern offenstand, zeitgenössisch modernen didaktisch-pädagogischen Prinzipien verpflichtet war und vom Deutschen Reich aus finanziell gefördert wurde. Im Gegensatz dazu stand ein auf Betreiben der NSDAP und ungarischer Dienststellen errichteter Neubau einer repräsentativen „Reichsschule“ in der ungarischen Hauptstadt, die ab 1938 konzipiert und Zug um Zug realisiert wurde. So konstituierten sich in Budapest zwei konkurrierende Erinnerungsorte: an eine in das städtische Milieu gut integrierte, aufgeschlossene, und an eine von außen oktroyierte, von der NS-Ideologie beherrschte Schule.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Aus dem urbanen Milieu Budapests führt der nächste Aufsatz in eine überwiegend kleinstädtische oder dörflich-rurale Region. Die deutschen Schulen im slowakischen Landesteil der Tschechoslowakischen Republik und ihre Rolle und Wahrnehmung thematisiert der Historiker Mirek Němec in seinem Beitrag. Bis zur Infiltration und Mobilisierung der deutschen Bevölkerung in der Slowakei durch sudetendeutsche Volkstumsaktivisten ab den späten 1920er-Jahren galt das mehrsprachig angelegte slowakische Minderheitenschulwesen, das auf Integration und damit auch soziale Partizipation ausgerichtet war, als fortschrittlich und wurde auch von den Angehörigen der deutschen Minderheit selbst so gesehen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Der Bildungshistoriker Stefan Johann Schatz untersucht schließlich die deutsche Schulpolitik im südmährischen Oberlandratsbezirk Iglau (tsch. Jihlava) in der Zeit des so genannten Protektorats Böhmen und Mähren zwischen 1939 und 1945. Vor dem Hintergrund der nationalsozialistischen „Germanisierungspolitik“ dokumentiert er die Beschlagnahme bestehender tschechischer Schulen, die Planung und Gründung neuer deutscher Schulen in einem historisch gemischtsprachigen Gebiet. Ungeachtet dieser wichtigen Befunde wirft die Platzierung dieses Beitrags in einem Sammelband zum „auslandsdeutschen Schulwesen“ erneut die Frage nach dessen Konzeption. Völkerrechtlich war das vom Deutschen Reich annektierte und angegliederte „Protektorat Böhmen und Mähren“ trotz seiner Marionettenregierung in Prag kein „Ausland“, sondern ein besetztes Territorium, das in der politischen Praxis von Berlin aus wie ein Kolonialland behandelt wurde. Insofern ist der – inhaltlich nicht zu beanstandende – Aufsatz von Schatz eher ein Beitrag zur deutschen Kriegsführung als zur auslandsdeutschen Schulpolitik.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Was hält diese zweifelsohne verdienstvollen Einzelbeiträge zusammen? In seiner konzeptionellen Einleitung formuliert der Herausgeber Hans-Werner Retterath die These einer deutschen „Politik des Ethnomanagements“ oder „Volkstumskampfes“, mit der die Formierung intellektueller Eliten innerhalb der deutschen Minderheiten bezweckt worden sei (S. 9). Er konstruiert darüber hinaus eine „knapp 500 Jahre“ zurückreichende Tradition deutscher Auslandsschulen (S. 9). Spätestens an dieser Stelle kommen gewisse Zweifel auf: Fühlte sich ein deutschsprachiger Schüler der Renaissance- oder Barockzeit in den schwedischen beziehungsweise russischen Ostseeprovinzen, in der polnisch-litauischen Rzeczypospolita oder im östlichen Habsburgerreich wirklich als „Vorposten“ einer „deutschen Kulturnation“, deren Fortbestand ausgerechnet an seinem Standort „bedroht“ gewesen sein sollte? An dieser Stelle ist Hans-Werner Retterath offensichtlich etwas der Versuchung und argumentativen Falle erlegen, eine lange Kontinuitätslinie aufzuzeigen zu wollen. Dieser Hypothese hängt allerdings auch der zweite Autor des Bandes, der Historiker Christian Kuchler, an, der sich der Deutschen Schule in Belgrad ab 1945 widmet. Implizit scheint sie auch bei dem Historiker Dominik Herzer auf, der als geografische Vergleichsgröße zur Lage im östlichen Europa die deutschen Schulen in Spanien seit dem Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts einführt. Dabei gelingt ihm eine überzeugende Systematisierung und definitorische Schärfe der verwendeten Begrifflichkeiten.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Tatsächlich darf die kritische Befassung mit der deutschen Volkstumspolitik des Kaiserreichs, der Weimarer Republik und des Dritten Reichs, die katastrophale Folgen nach sich zog, wie wir heute im Rückblick wissen, darf nicht zu einer historiografischen Unschärfe führen. Dies betrifft sowohl die Ebene der Akteure, auf der in manchen Aufsätzen in diesem Band die Protagonisten aus dem Deutschen Reich de facto nur eine untergeordnete oder keine Rolle gespielt haben, als auch die der Empfänger bzw. Nutznießer der Schulen. Das Beispiel Stanislau zeigt anschaulich, dass nicht in jedem Fall ausschließlich Angehörige „deutscher Minderheiten“ nach dem ethnischen Verständnis von Volkstumsideologen die deutschen Schulen im Ausland frequentierten. Dieser Umstand ließe sich noch anhand sehr vieler anderer deutscher Schulen im Ausland belegen. 1901 etwa gründete die Witwe eines deutschen Brauereibesitzers eine Deutsche Evangelische Schule in der rumänischen Schwarzmeer-Hafenstadt Konstanza (rum. Constanța). Da es unter den deutschen evangelischen Kindern in der Dobrudscha keine ausreichende Nachfrage nach weiterführenden Schulen gab und die Förderung seitens der Gustav-Adolf-Stiftung nur sehr dürftig ausfiel, wurden von Anfang an auch zahlende rumänische, jüdische, türkische und armenische Schüler aufgenommen. Die Vermittlung solider deutscher Sprachkenntnisse war in diesem Fall kein Instrument, um politische Eliten der deutschen Minderheit auszubilden. Die andersethnischen Schüler beziehungsweise deren Eltern wollten durch den Anschluss an einen seinerzeit dominanten zentraleuropäischen Sprachraum soziale Aufstiegsmöglichkeiten erhöhen. Das lässt an die Gegenwart denken: Das Samuel-von-Brukenthal-Gymnasium in Hermannstadt (rum. Sibiu) oder die Lenauschule in Temeswar (rum. Timișoara) mit ihrem überwiegend deutschsprachigen Lehrplan werden heute mehrheitlich von rumänischen Schüler/innen besucht, die dadurch ihre deutschen Sprachkenntnisse perfektionieren. Auch waren bereits in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts die „deutschen Minderheiten“ keineswegs homogene „Gruppen“, die sich ausschließlich ethnisch oder sprachlich definierten. Gerade die protestantischen Schulinitiativen lassen die Relevanz konfessioneller Faktoren aufscheinen; darüber hinaus dürften in vielen Fällen auch soziale Identitäten eine nicht zu unterschätzende Rolle gespielt haben.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Von diesen prinzipiellen Einwänden einmal abgesehen bieten die einzelnen Fallstudien in dem rezensierten Band eine in jedem Fall erkenntnisfördernde Lektüre. Sie zeigen gleichzeitig, dass es sich trotz der vorhandenen Literatur lohnt, zur Schulgeschichte in all ihren Verflechtungen weiter zu forschen.&nbsp;</p>



<p class="has-text-align-right"><em>Tobias Weger</em></p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/hans-werner-retterath-hg-auslandsdeutsches-schulwesen-des-20-jahrhunderts-zwischen-volkstumsarbeit-und-auswaertiger-kulturpolitik/">Hans-Werner Retterath (Hg.): Auslandsdeutsches Schulwesen des 20. Jahrhunderts zwischen ‚Volkstumsarbeit‘ und Auswärtiger Kulturpolitik   </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<title>Die Legende des Ikaros: Anmerkungen zu den Parabeln von György Bretter   </title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/die-legende-des-ikaros-anmerkungen-zu-den-parabeln-von-gyoergy-bretter/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 13:58:03 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Quellen]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=837</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Franz Sz. Horváth  1. Mythen als philosophische Impulsgeber  Die Konfrontation zwischen der antiken und der modernen Philosophie berühre die tiefsten Schichten menschlichen und philosophischen Selbstverständnisses, bemerkte Rüdiger Bubner in der Einleitung zu seiner Aufsatzsammlung Antike Themen und ihre moderne Verwandlung. Jede Generation führe die Tradition der Alten auf ihre Weise fort und trage somit zu [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/die-legende-des-ikaros-anmerkungen-zu-den-parabeln-von-gyoergy-bretter/">Die Legende des Ikaros: Anmerkungen zu den Parabeln von György Bretter   </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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<p>Franz Sz. Horváth </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">1. Mythen als philosophische Impulsgeber </h2>



<p>Die Konfrontation zwischen der antiken und der modernen Philosophie berühre die tiefsten Schichten menschlichen und philosophischen Selbstverständnisses, bemerkte Rüdiger Bubner in der Einleitung zu seiner Aufsatzsammlung <em>Antike Themen und ihre moderne Verwandlung</em>.<sup data-fn="461d4886-017b-4a02-b351-35d0504d19ce" class="fn"><a href="#461d4886-017b-4a02-b351-35d0504d19ce" id="461d4886-017b-4a02-b351-35d0504d19ce-link">1</a></sup> Jede Generation führe die Tradition der Alten auf ihre Weise fort und trage somit zu ihrer Verlebendigung bei. Allerdings gehöre, worauf etwa Friedrich Nietzsche und Martin Heidegger hingewiesen hätten, den Anfängen des Geistes „ein durch keine Reflexion mehr einholbares Übergewicht“.<sup data-fn="64b4bb4f-8376-474c-be8d-caec8f98671c" class="fn"><a href="#64b4bb4f-8376-474c-be8d-caec8f98671c" id="64b4bb4f-8376-474c-be8d-caec8f98671c-link">2</a></sup> Damit gewinnt die Beschäftigung mit den antiken Ursprüngen eine Legitimation und Notwendigkeit und diese Auseinandersetzung wird im Gefolge Max Horkheimers und Theodor W. Adornos bzw. der Dialektik der Aufklärung noch einmal dialektisch gewendet und betont. </p>



<p>So alt die Mythen, so alt und vielfältig auch die Geschichte ihrer Deutungen. Diese setzen spätestens mit Platon ein, der sie als dem „Wahren“ entgegengesetzt begriff und ihre allegorische Interpretation begründete.<sup data-fn="dbbfefcc-60f2-414d-be96-48c1742f78ec" class="fn"><a href="#dbbfefcc-60f2-414d-be96-48c1742f78ec" id="dbbfefcc-60f2-414d-be96-48c1742f78ec-link">3</a></sup> Das Gegensatzpaar „Mythos – Logos“ betritt mit ihm die Bühne der Mytheninterpretationen und wird von seinem Schüler Aristoteles fortgeschrieben. Die allegorische Mythendeutung geht davon aus, dass Mythen auf einen tieferen Sinn, auf etwas Anderes hinweisen und ausdrücken wollen. Ihren Gegenpart stellt die von Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling eingeführte tautegorische Lesart dar, nach der die Mythen aus sich selbst heraus und als „theogonischer Prozess“ im menschlichen Bewusstsein zu verstehen sind.<sup data-fn="8883b74d-201a-4a4c-89d8-a18c9b1eaf22" class="fn"><a href="#8883b74d-201a-4a4c-89d8-a18c9b1eaf22" id="8883b74d-201a-4a4c-89d8-a18c9b1eaf22-link">4</a></sup> Im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert blühte die Mythendeutung regelrecht auf und eine Vielzahl von Disziplinen und Denkmodellen versuchte, Mythen neu zu lesen. Zu den einflussreichsten Strömungen gehören die kulturanthropologische, die psychodynamische bzw. psychoanalytische, die kommunikationstheoretische, die soziologische und die strukturalistische sowie die existenzialistische Interpretation.<sup data-fn="c8776988-0ae9-408c-99e5-215d0d354db4" class="fn"><a href="#c8776988-0ae9-408c-99e5-215d0d354db4" id="c8776988-0ae9-408c-99e5-215d0d354db4-link">5</a></sup> Zum Verständnis von György Bretters Parabeln von besonderem Interesse sind zum einen die psychologisch inspirierten Erklärungen, die den Mythos als eine „Aneinanderreihung von Assoziationen und Gefühlsmomente[n]“ auffassen und zum anderen die existenzialistischen, die seine Inhalte vor dem Hintergrund der eigenen Lebenssituation und von persönlichen Erfahrungen deuten.<sup data-fn="2692eb69-942b-46a2-8cfd-4ac3c8ac7824" class="fn"><a href="#2692eb69-942b-46a2-8cfd-4ac3c8ac7824" id="2692eb69-942b-46a2-8cfd-4ac3c8ac7824-link">6</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">2. Mythosdeutung als existenzialistische Flucht im „real existierenden“ Sozialismus </h2>



<p>Dass auch im Ostblock Mythen gedeutet wurden, ist nicht die Frage, vielmehr wie die Hinwendung zu ihnen zu erklären ist. Warum blieb György Bretter, ein 1932 geborener Angehöriger der ungarischen Minderheit Rumäniens, der in den 1940er-Jahren in dem sich einrichtenden „sozialistischen“ System sozialisiert wurde und die offizielle Lehre angenommen hatte, nicht bei seinen philosophischen Studien und Themen und wandte sich stattdessen den alten Geschichten der Griechen zu? Und es waren nicht einmal nur die Vorsokratiker, von denen in der offiziellen Lehre behauptet wurde, sie seien die ersten Materialisten gewesen, die sein Interesse weckten, sondern die uralten Erzählungen über Ikaros, Laokoon und Chronos.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bretters Interesse an den griechischen Mythen ist nur vor dem Hintergrund der Hinwendung einer ganzen Generation ungarischer Minderheitenintellektuellen zu antiken Themen und Mythen zu verstehen. Im größeren Kontext geschah das parallel zur Distanzierung vom offiziellen Marxismus, wofür die Namen von Bretters Generationsgenossen Leszek Kolakowski (1927–2009) oder von Ágnes Heller (1929–2019) stehen. Die Lukácsschülerin Heller gedachte in ihrer Autobiographie <em>Bicikliző majom </em>[Affe auf dem Fahrrad] in einem eigenen Kapitel ihrer Begegnungen mit Bretter und lobte dessen geistreichen und unangepassten Marxismus, ohne zu erklären, wie sich dieser äußerte.<sup data-fn="540390d2-16c9-4ef2-854e-909494ae8759" class="fn"><a href="#540390d2-16c9-4ef2-854e-909494ae8759" id="540390d2-16c9-4ef2-854e-909494ae8759-link">7</a></sup> Dabei stand dieser Marxismus in den 1970er-Jahren, als die beiden einander begegneten, nicht einmal mehr im Zentrum von Bretters Interesse. Denn spätestens seit Mitte der 1960er-Jahre ersetzte in weiten Kreisen von Intellektuellen die Desillusionierung den in die neue sozialistische Gesellschaft gesetzten Glauben. Die Gründe dieser Desillusionierung sind komplex: Die ernüchternde Realität nach zwanzig Jahren sozialistischer Aufbauarbeit, die Nachwirkungen des Terrors, der nach der Niederschlagung des ungarischen Aufstands auch in Rumänien um sich griff, und die Enttäuschung angesichts des Einmarsches osteuropäischer Länder in die Tschechoslowakei, um die dortige Reformbewegung zu ersticken, waren nur eine Seite der Medaille. Die andere Seite wurde von der ethnischen Wirklichkeit Rumäniens geprägt: Selbst die überzeugtesten jüdischen und ungarischen Kommunisten, die nach dem Krieg begeistert an die Möglichkeit einer sozialistischen Gesellschaft, in der es keine religiösen und ethnischen Diskriminierungen gäbe, geglaubt hatten, mussten in den 1960er-Jahren erkennen, wie falsch sie lagen. Zwar war nach 1960 auch in Rumänien der Stalinismus überwunden, offene Kritik an den Verhältnissen oder auch nur abweichende Ansichten in ideologischen oder ökonomischen Fragen, waren allerdings selbst in der kurzen Tauwetterperiode nach 1965 unerwünscht. Die „Juli-Thesen“ Nicolae Ceauşescus läuteten 1971 eine neue, restriktive Phase der Innenpolitik ein, die die Minderheiten und ihr Kulturleben insbesondere hart traf und sich gegen ihre Identität richtete.<sup data-fn="920de286-bf52-4078-9be8-bd50228ca437" class="fn"><a href="#920de286-bf52-4078-9be8-bd50228ca437" id="920de286-bf52-4078-9be8-bd50228ca437-link">8</a></sup></p>



<p>Die Hinwendung zur Deutung antiker Erzählungen, Mythen und Philosophen bot seit den 1960er-Jahren den Intellektuellen und Philosophen der ungarischen Minderheit somit einen Weg, sich nicht mit den offiziell erwünschten Themen (Auslegung und Deutung der marxistischen Klassiker, Leben und Probleme der Arbeiterklasse usw.) auseinandersetzen zu müssen. Stattdessen wandten sie sich antiken Themen zu, um einerseits den Zwangserwartungen zu entfliehen, aber andererseits über diesen Umweg Antworten auf die existenziellen Fragen der eigenen ethnischen Gruppe zu geben. Nicht jede Beschäftigung mit der Antike musste allerdings im Lichte der eigenen Lebenssituation geschehen: Der Wissenschaftsphilosoph Imre Tóth (1921–2010), der die Unmöglichkeit des Eintretens für die Wissenschaftsfreiheit am eigenen Leibe erfahren hatte, als er wegen eines Artikels im Rahmen einer antisemitischen Parteisitzung aus der Partei ausgeschlossen wurde, befasste sich mit den Spuren nicht-euklidischer Geometrie bei Aristoteles und mit Zenons Paradoxien (Achill und die Frage der Geschwindigkeit). Seine Ergebnisse wurden in vielen Weltsprachen publiziert und bescherten ihm nach seiner Ausreise aus Rumänien (1968) schließlich einen Lehrstuhl an der Regensburger Universität.<sup data-fn="06657f13-2cf6-4242-b2e6-cbd6e1ef4e5b" class="fn"><a href="#06657f13-2cf6-4242-b2e6-cbd6e1ef4e5b" id="06657f13-2cf6-4242-b2e6-cbd6e1ef4e5b-link">9</a></sup> Tóths Wegbegleiter aus der Zeit der Illegalität und der Judenverfolgung der 1940er-Jahre war der Klausenburger Philosophieprofessor Ernő Gáll (1917–2000). Auch er überwand in den 1960er-Jahren seine dogmatische Periode und öffnete sich neuen geistigen Strömungen. Die Deutung antiker Mythen (Prometheus, Pandora) zog sich auch bei ihm über Jahre hin und er fasste eine Vielzahl seiner Aufsätze Ende der 1970er-Jahre unter dem Titel <em>Die Rückkehr der Pandora</em> zusammen.<sup data-fn="d6992d74-9be6-495e-9092-482563f10e5a" class="fn"><a href="#d6992d74-9be6-495e-9092-482563f10e5a" id="d6992d74-9be6-495e-9092-482563f10e5a-link">10</a></sup> Im Gefolge Ernst Blochs, den er 1967 traf, deutete Gáll die Büchse der Pandora als ein Symbol für die unfertige, unabgeschlossene Welt, die der Mensch als sein Heim noch einzurichten habe. Dem Zweifel und der Skepsis setzte Gáll den hoffenden Menschen gegenüber und sprach vom Vertrauen, das der Mensch trotz der widrigen Realitäten in die konstruktive Tat setzen solle. Der antike Mythos bot ihm die Folie für eine Philosophie der Hoffnung und Möglichkeiten, die er zur Prägung des Ausdrucks von der „Würde der Eigenart“ nutzte.<sup data-fn="b378a131-6f2e-4540-8cfa-db7a73b2d839" class="fn"><a href="#b378a131-6f2e-4540-8cfa-db7a73b2d839" id="b378a131-6f2e-4540-8cfa-db7a73b2d839-link">11</a></sup> Diese Würde zog er in Zeiten heran, da von Menschenwürde unter den auf die Assimilation der Minderheiten gerichteten Umständen keine Rede sein konnte. Jeder Entität, jedem Individuum, aber auch jeder (ethnischen) Gruppe komme das Recht zu, die jeweilige (ethnische, religiöse usw.) Eigenart zu bewahren, denn nur dies garantiere ein würdevolles Leben – so das Ergebnis von Gálls Beschäftigung mit Prometheus und Pandora. Als letztes Beispiel für eine Auseinandersetzung mit antiken Erzählungen sei auf den Essay <em>Die Perser</em> (1972) des Schriftstellers András Sütő (1927–2006)<sup data-fn="7a16d96b-5d42-44d1-85ef-445a79999283" class="fn"><a href="#7a16d96b-5d42-44d1-85ef-445a79999283" id="7a16d96b-5d42-44d1-85ef-445a79999283-link">12</a></sup> hingewiesen, der mit Gáll eng befreundet war. Bereits der Titel war als Anspielung auf die <em>Lettres persanes</em> des Montesquieu gedacht. Sütő fokussierte sich allerdings auf die von den Truppen Alexanders des Großen unterworfenen Perser und deren Schicksal nach der Errichtung der griechischen Herrschaft über Persien. Der Minderheitenschriftsteller stellte vor allem die der Hellenisierung, also dem Verlust ihrer kulturellen und sprachlichen Eigenart, ausgesetzten persischen Kinder und deren Mütter ins Zentrum seiner Gedanken. Dabei unterstrich er die Beharrungskraft der Muttersprache, die Möglichkeiten indirekten Widerstands gegen die Kräfte der Unterjochung und Assimilation. Sein Essay hatte damit eine eindeutig für seine Gegenwart bestimmte Botschaft an die Leser, den Appell, von den persischen Müttern zu lernen, die eigene Sprache und Kultur zu pflegen und sich der politischen Unterdrückung nicht zu beugen. In der Folgezeit verfasste der Schriftsteller vor allem Dramen über Michael Kohlhaas und Michael Servet.<sup data-fn="2be637dd-8c46-4ef3-bf0e-d5795dbc7f93" class="fn"><a href="#2be637dd-8c46-4ef3-bf0e-d5795dbc7f93" id="2be637dd-8c46-4ef3-bf0e-d5795dbc7f93-link">13</a></sup> Dabei ging es stets um eine klare Botschaft an seine Gegenwart, denn in den Dramen sind moralisch-politische Aussagen über das Standhalten formuliert, die Würde und das Eintreten gegen politischen und religiösen Fanatismus.<sup data-fn="c333ef0b-0ace-4a1d-869a-e8368c0896d9" class="fn"><a href="#c333ef0b-0ace-4a1d-869a-e8368c0896d9" id="c333ef0b-0ace-4a1d-869a-e8368c0896d9-link">14</a></sup></p>



<p>György Bretters Essays über antike Mythen, die er Parabeln nannte, vereinen über die bisherigen Beispiele hinausweisend sowohl allgemeingültige kulturanthropologische Deutungen als auch existenzialistische, also von der eigenen Lebenswirklichkeit ausgehende Interpretationen, welche Verbindung ihre Besonderheit ausmacht. Doch wer war Bretter eigentlich?&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">3. György Bretter – ein Philosoph im Sozialismus </h2>



<p>Geboren wurde György Bretter 1932 in der ungarischen Stadt Pécs (dt.: Fünfkirchen). Nachdem Ungarn 1940 mit Unterstützung des nationalsozialistischen Deutschlands das sogenannte Nordsiebenbürgen zurückerhielt, siedelten seine Eltern dorthin über. Das Abitur legte er in der Stadt Sathmar (rum. Satu Mare, ung. Szatmárnémeti) ab und studierte anschließend Philosophie an der ungarischen Universität der Stadt Klausenburg (rum. Cluj, ung. Kolozsvár). Nach seinem 1954 erfolgten Staatsexamen arbeitete er für die lokale Parteizeitung und galt als überzeugter Kommunist. 1957 erhielt er eine Stelle an der Universität, damaligen Gerüchten nach, weil er als parteitreuer und junger Kader die Studenten „beaufsichtigen“ sollte.<sup data-fn="81c639b3-5822-497f-9b19-789623155c29" class="fn"><a href="#81c639b3-5822-497f-9b19-789623155c29" id="81c639b3-5822-497f-9b19-789623155c29-link">15</a></sup> Der Aufstand in Ungarn, der auch in Klausenburg Wellen schlug, lag kaum ein paar Monate zurück. Von 1960 bis zu seinem frühen, krankheitsbedingten Tod 1977 unterrichtete er Philosophie v.a. an der Kunsthochschule der Stadt.<sup data-fn="37da34eb-c8ce-4d7f-b72b-d8b834d6916b" class="fn"><a href="#37da34eb-c8ce-4d7f-b72b-d8b834d6916b" id="37da34eb-c8ce-4d7f-b72b-d8b834d6916b-link">16</a></sup> Er galt als Freund der Budapester Schule und ihrer Vertreter (Ágnes Heller, Ferenc Fehér, Mihály Vajda). </p>



<p>An der offiziellen Ideologie kam ein junger Philosoph in den 1950er- und 1960er-Jahren nicht vorbei. Im Zentrum von Bretters Interesse stand aber die griechische Philosophie, was seinen antiken Essays (man beachte etwa die mehrfache Gleichsetzung der Sonne mit der Freiheit und dem Guten)<sup data-fn="7179949c-885a-4318-b95a-ed92c8c47118" class="fn"><a href="#7179949c-885a-4318-b95a-ed92c8c47118" id="7179949c-885a-4318-b95a-ed92c8c47118-link">17</a></sup> ihr besonderes Gepräge gab. Doch befasste er sich auch mit dem deutschen Idealismus und in seiner nicht beendeten Doktorarbeit<sup data-fn="03339f4b-8e70-450a-a081-575fc7b5261d" class="fn"><a href="#03339f4b-8e70-450a-a081-575fc7b5261d" id="03339f4b-8e70-450a-a081-575fc7b5261d-link">18</a></sup> analysierte er Fichtes Vorstellung eines idealen Staates. Er publizierte Aufsätze und Essays über Karl Marx und Georg Lukács, übersetzte Louis Althusser ins Ungarische, befasste sich mit Albert Camus und Roger Garaudy und interessierte sich auch für sprachphilosophische Themen.<sup data-fn="4a9ccd88-9fee-4233-93a1-8e6f13ed4e73" class="fn"><a href="#4a9ccd88-9fee-4233-93a1-8e6f13ed4e73" id="4a9ccd88-9fee-4233-93a1-8e6f13ed4e73-link">19</a></sup> Durch den Unterricht, durch Vorträge und durch sein Wesen, das die Zuhörer in den Bann zog, gelang es ihm, auch außerhalb der Kunsthochschule einen großen Bekanntheitsgrad zu erlangen. In den 1970er-Jahren sprach man bereits von der „Bretter-Schule“ und meinte damit eine Gruppe junger Philosophen, die von ihm beeinflusst und direkt-indirekt radikalisiert wurden.<sup data-fn="6f1d71ae-8e4c-4057-9c41-5c963947878e" class="fn"><a href="#6f1d71ae-8e4c-4057-9c41-5c963947878e" id="6f1d71ae-8e4c-4057-9c41-5c963947878e-link">20</a></sup> Etlichen gelang es später, in Rumänien oder Ungarn eine universitäre Karriere einzuschlagen (Péter Egyed, Gusztáv Molnár), einige reüssierten sogar im Ausland (Vilmos Holczhauser, Miklós Tamás Gáspár). Doch gehörten auch Schriftsteller (Gyula Szabó), Dichter (Zsófia Balla) und bildende Künstler (Ernő Ferencz) zu den von Bretters Werk und Lehre inspirierten Personen. Die Aufforderung zum Handeln, zur Wahrnehmung und Bewusstmachung des eigenen Schicksals, zur Übernahme von Verantwortung für das eigene Leben wie das der Gemeinschaft, der man angehört, waren einige von Bretters Losungen, die sich im Ausdruck „Hier und etwas Anderes“ als Abwandlung des berühmten „Hier und Jetzt“ verdichtet hatten. Bei vielen seiner Schülern führten diese Losungen in den 1980er-Jahren zum Engagement in dissidentischen Kreisen (in Rumänien und/oder Ungarn) und zu ihrer Verfolgung durch die jeweiligen Sicherheitsbehörden, nach der Wende zum aktiven Politisieren (teils in liberalen oder linken Parteien) – ein Einsatz, der der Bretterschen Erkenntnis entsprang, dass zum „vollen“, d.h. sinnvollen und perfekten, Leben das Handeln und die Tat gehören. Diese Gedanken entwickelte der Klausenburger Philosoph in seinen essayistischen Mythendeutungen. Warum gerade in Essays und weshalb die antiken Mythen? </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"> 4. Der Essay als Mittel der/zur Freiheit. Zu György Bretters Parabeln</h2>



<p>In etlichen Untertiteln seiner Aufsatzsammlungen benutzte Bretter den Begriff „Essay“ und mehrmals formulierte er seine Ansichten über dessen Wesen und Möglichkeiten.<sup data-fn="37623da4-5966-4022-a901-40fd827adf70" class="fn"><a href="#37623da4-5966-4022-a901-40fd827adf70" id="37623da4-5966-4022-a901-40fd827adf70-link">21</a></sup> In einer Rezension über einen Sammelband mit englischen Essays wies er 1965 der Gattung eine intellektuelle Vermittlerrolle zwischen Poesie und Philosophie zu. Ihre Eigentümlichkeit bestehe darin, einem Mangelgefühl des Geistes Genüge zu tun, indem sie auf eine ganz spezielle Art und Weise Logik und Rationalität mit Gefühlen vermische. Der Essay drücke Sehnsüchte und innere Triebe gegenüber der Vernunft aus und gebe der Sehnsucht ein Objekt, dem Ziel eine Richtung und treibe den Willen zum Handeln. Der (englische) Essay denke anstelle des einzelnen Menschen und verstärke einen Wunsch und Anspruch der Gemeinschaft, die (von den Wissenschaften) bewusst noch gar nicht formuliert wurden. Er sei progressiv und übernehme die Ermittlung vorhandener Anlagen in Verbindung mit einer ethischen Haltung.<sup data-fn="d463a60d-c1b0-4680-b337-3b5a6e50b3d6" class="fn"><a href="#d463a60d-c1b0-4680-b337-3b5a6e50b3d6" id="d463a60d-c1b0-4680-b337-3b5a6e50b3d6-link">22</a></sup> In einer anderen Rezension, die (wie es im ungarischen Sprachraum üblich ist) eher den Charakter eines Aufsatzes trägt und mit <em>Essays und Leben</em><sup data-fn="23edca1e-dcd3-4a8e-a754-4491ade3fda0" class="fn"><a href="#23edca1e-dcd3-4a8e-a754-4491ade3fda0" id="23edca1e-dcd3-4a8e-a754-4491ade3fda0-link">23</a></sup> überschrieben ist, lobt er einen Autor, indem er meinte, dessen Texte reichen an die Qualität von Essays heran und er wähle aus der Vergangenheit bewusst das heraus, was eine Botschaft an das Heute habe. Bretter ließ diese Gelegenheit nicht aus, um festzuhalten:  </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Auch wenn wir unsere Lage noch gar nicht soweit ermessen können, dass wir zu philosophischen Verallgemeinerungen gelangen könnten, können wir in einem Essay dennoch viel über unsere Epoche sagen. Nicht nur durch ein Porträt, sondern an je ein Phänomen uns klammernd können wir über unsere moralische Haltung, über die Kreise unserer Gedankenwelt und unseres Handelns, über unsere humanen Bedingungen [etwas sagen, F.H.]. In dieser Gattung ist sogar die Verzauberung der Gegenwart zur Vergangenheit möglich. Denn die Gegenwart wird gerade dadurch vergangen, dass wir zeigen – wie sie ist; wir ergreifen sie und zwingen sie zur Veränderung. In diesem Prozess kommt dem Zeigen der Vorrang zu. So kann auch der Essay selbst zur Tat werden. Unter vielen anderen kann auch das Schreiben zur Tat werden.<sup data-fn="e863d893-201f-45b5-bd35-2360cae06da9" class="fn"><a href="#e863d893-201f-45b5-bd35-2360cae06da9" id="e863d893-201f-45b5-bd35-2360cae06da9-link">24</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>Das Programm Bretters sah demnach die bewusste Behandlung von Themen vor, die etwas über die Gegenwart aussagen sollten. Dieses Etwas sollte jedoch (wie in Parabeln) nur gezeigt werden. Den Schritt zur Übertragung auf seine eigenen Lebensverhältnisse überließ Bretter dem Leser, wodurch der Essay zur Tat werden sollte. In seinem bereits zitierten Lebenslauf bekannte er:&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Ich schreibe Essays über ethisch-anthropologische Fragen, weil ich glaube: Das Problem des Menschen ist die ernsthafteste Sache. […] Meine Arbeit als Lehrer hält mich dazu an, die karge Hülle der ausgesprochenen Wahrheiten zu bersten und in die Abstraktion eine sinnliche Ladung hineinzuschmuggeln und etwas über die Welt anzudeuten zu versuchen, was ich für richtig halte, aber anders nicht sagen kann.<sup data-fn="71b2f883-c377-477a-9ef9-2adfd8075567" class="fn"><a href="#71b2f883-c377-477a-9ef9-2adfd8075567" id="71b2f883-c377-477a-9ef9-2adfd8075567-link">25</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>Das Unvermögen, sich adäquat auszudrücken, bezieht sich hierbei nicht nur auf die Grenzen des sprachlichen Ausdrucksvermögens, die Bretter, der auch hierüber publizierte, bekannt waren, sondern es war selbstverständlich politischer Natur. Schließlich hält Bretter in seiner Einleitung zum Aufsatzband <em>Dialog mit der Gegenwart</em> [Párbeszéd a jelennel] („Dialog“ ist neben „Wunsch“ und „Essays“ das häufigste Wort in seinen Buchtiteln) unter anderem die größeren Möglichkeiten fest, die der Essay einem Autor biete. Sobald ihm ein banales Thema Anlass biete zu schreiben, könne er sich der Magie des Essays hingeben und entfernt erscheinende Tatsachen miteinander verbinden, aus neuen Begriffen weitere Termini herausschälen und die Freiheit nutzen, Neues zu entwerfen. Das Schreiben von Essays sei daher eine Stellungnahme für oder gegen Ansichten, eine Stellungnahme im Namen der Ratio und der Vollendetheit „gegen die Leere, die Flachheit, die der Banalität erwachsene Langeweile. Wir möchten also etwas Sinnvolles sagen und das schön und […] sogar spannend“.<sup data-fn="e24e210f-8ca6-4454-8a11-60e0d8a58916" class="fn"><a href="#e24e210f-8ca6-4454-8a11-60e0d8a58916" id="e24e210f-8ca6-4454-8a11-60e0d8a58916-link">26</a></sup></p>



<p>Bretters Essaybegriff beinhaltet somit einen geschützten Freiheitsraum, um im Kontext historisch fern angesiedelter Themen und Personen ethisch und anthropologisch relevante Kategorien zu erörtern, zu entwickeln und durch eine Parabel zu den Zeitgenossen zu sprechen, um Stellung zu beziehen und die Leser an die im Menschen vorhandenen Anlagen zu erinnern, sie zu einem erfüllten, sinnhaften und humanen Leben zu ermahnen. Auch wenn er in seinem Lebenslauf behauptet, er wisse nicht, ob das, was er mache, Philosophie sei, kam seine Vorstellung über das Wesen und die Funktionen des Essays seinem Philosophiebegriff nahe. Er definiert die Philosophie als menschliches Grundbedürfnis nach einer Totalität bzw. einem Grundsatz, der eine umfassende Antwort auf menschliche Fragen hat.<sup data-fn="8645ad20-6032-4be6-9b35-d6e54edb9ad6" class="fn"><a href="#8645ad20-6032-4be6-9b35-d6e54edb9ad6" id="8645ad20-6032-4be6-9b35-d6e54edb9ad6-link">27</a></sup> Diese Totalität oder Vollendetheit sei dem Menschen (etwa durch die Atomisierung der Welt und der überschaubaren Wissensbereiche) abhandengekommen. Die Philosophie versuche, sie zumindest begrifflich wiederherzustellen und eine Unendlichkeit (ohne im Besitze von Detailwissen zu sein) zu begreifen – was zugleich ihre Paradoxie ausmache. Der Philosophie gehe es somit um Perspektiven, um das Aufzeigen von menschlichen Möglichkeiten zwischen den Bereichen, die bereits bekannt oder noch unbekannt, aber vorstellbar sind. Sie verweise damit gleichsam wie ein dynamisches Modell bzw. einen Prozess über eine Grenze hinaus – in die Richtung einer humaneren Welt. Damit trage sie zum Vertrauen in die menschliche Tat bei und sei als Lehre vom Menschen der Nachweis, dass „das richtige Handeln in gesellschaftlicher Hinsicht die konstruktive Tat, das Bauen des Neuen mit humanen Mitteln“ sei.<sup data-fn="ba1dde32-62b9-4169-b8d3-c421ccda57b6" class="fn"><a href="#ba1dde32-62b9-4169-b8d3-c421ccda57b6" id="ba1dde32-62b9-4169-b8d3-c421ccda57b6-link">28</a></sup> Denn man könne keine neuen Werte durch das Niedertrampeln anderer Werte erschaffen, so Bretter in seinem Aufsatz, den er 1966, kurz vor seinem ersten „griechischen“ Essay (<em>Die Legende des Ikaro</em>s) schrieb. Lediglich zehn-fünfzehn Jahre nach dem Wüten des Stalinismus, im Zuge dessen alle nichtsozialistischen Werke und Denker (nur allzu häufig auch körperlich) eliminiert wurden, brauchte Bretter seinen Zeitgenossen nicht erklären, worauf er anspielte. Die Philosophie begriff er demnach als einen eigentümlichen, grundmenschlichen Zwang zum bewussten Denken und Handeln, der sich gegen die Wärme des Konformismus richte und den Menschen nötige, seine Lage und Chancen zu erkennen und zu ergreifen:  </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Sie ist die Verlängerung und Erhebung unseres Seins. Das birgt für uns eine große und die vielleicht menschlichste Möglichkeit überhaupt: Wir heben unser individuelles Sein durch die Philosophie auf die Ebene des Kosmos und lassen unser individuelles Schicksal mit den Koordinaten des Gedankens ins Unendliche laufen.<sup data-fn="1f8d080f-7f78-4f0a-842d-ea3ca5f3c8d6" class="fn"><a href="#1f8d080f-7f78-4f0a-842d-ea3ca5f3c8d6" id="1f8d080f-7f78-4f0a-842d-ea3ca5f3c8d6-link">29</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>Inwiefern nutzte Bretter nun die antiken Mythen, um seiner Zeit einen Spiegel vorzuhalten? Es dürfte aus dem Vorangegangenen bereits offensichtlich geworden sein, dass die existenzialistischen Mythendeutungen (<em>Die Legende des Ikaros</em>, <em>Das Dilemma der Kentauren</em> usw.) nicht lediglich eine thematische Flucht aus der Gegenwart in die antike Welt darstellten. Bretter wollte durch sie vielmehr an seine Zeitgenossen bewusst die Botschaft richten, dass aus den Schranken jeder Epoche ausgebrochen und Verantwortung sowie eine selbstbewusste Lebensführung übernommen werden können. Seine sieben (zwischen 1967 und 1972 erschienenen) Parabeln decken thematisch hochphilosophische Bereiche ab wie die Überschreitung der Immanenz zur Transzendenz, die Zeit, das menschliche Maß oder das Verhältnis Mensch-Gott. Doch kann man sie auch anthropologisch als Kampf der Generationen (Ikaros), als Nachsinnen über das Menschsein (der Kentaur) oder als Nachdenken über die Hintergründe erotischen Begehrens (Apollon) auffassen. Die in den Essays auftauchenden Gedanken sind inhaltlich miteinander verwandt, ergänzen einander und führen manche Aspekte fort, als seien sie alle zusammen Teile eines kollektiven Ganzen, einer urzeitlichen Gesamtheit und eines Gedächtnisses bzw. einer solchen Sprache.<sup data-fn="ad8577ad-3f95-4093-abf2-d71fe6d57cd9" class="fn"><a href="#ad8577ad-3f95-4093-abf2-d71fe6d57cd9" id="ad8577ad-3f95-4093-abf2-d71fe6d57cd9-link">30</a></sup></p>



<p>Die von ihm gewählten Figuren (Ikaros, der Kentaur, Laokoon, Chronos) stehen (wie der jüdisch-ungarische Philosoph selbst, der linke, aber nicht mehr dogmatisch-marxistische Denker Bretter) zwischen zwei Welten: Sie müssen sich zwischen einer diesseitigen Scheinwelt, einer leeren und flachen Welt des unbewussten Dahinlebens, das überwunden werden muss, und der bewussten, verantwortungsvollen und gemeinschaftlichen Welt entscheiden, wobei letztere natürlich die wahre Welt ist. Die erste Möglichkeit ist dem Heute verpflichtet (und verfallen), welcher Gefahr alle Menschen ausgesetzt sind. Die zweite Möglichkeit ist die der Zukunft und des Zukünftigen, wohin der Mensch gelangen kann, falls er sich und seiner Anlagen bewusst wird. Bewusstes Handeln erschaffe persönliche Identität und erst die daraus entstandene Tat weise eine moralische Qualität auf. Im Falle des Ikaros geht es um den Gegensatz der hiesigen Welt der Gegenwart, einer Welt des kompromissbereiten Vaters und der Welt der Sonne, die für die Höhe, das Erhabene, das schrankenlose Leben in der Zukunft steht. Ikaros sprengt die Schranken seiner Zeit und flieht ihr (unverstanden) davon. Der Kentaur versucht, die Welt des Menschen und die der Tiere, die der Ratio und jene der Instinkte in sich zu vereinen. Letztlich bleibt er jedoch eine „Halbheit“ und seine Entwicklung stellt keine echte Progression, keinen wirklichen Fortschritt mit Konsequenzen für die Gesellschaft dar. Laokoon schließlich unternimmt das Unmögliche, zugleich Diener zweier Herren – der Götter und der Menschen – zu sein und scheitert daran (was er im Voraus wusste und als sein Schicksal akzeptierte). Auch im Falle des Chronos geht es darum, das eigene einem selbst gegebene Sein und Schicksal anzunehmen, die Erkenntnis in eine Tat umzuformen, die in der Lage ist, in den Fluss der Zeit einzugreifen und handelnd eine Identität zu gewinnen. Apollon wiederum, der selbstverliebte und egomane Schönling, ist auf der Jagd nach der grenzenlosen Befriedigung seiner Bedürfnisse, seiner Rachesucht wie auch seines Liebeswunsches. Doch anstatt ein Wissender über die Zukunft zu werden, lernt er in seinem Strafjahr unter den Menschen die Notwendigkeit des Maßes, der Mäßigung und des Maßhaltens. Erst unter den Menschen akzeptiert er sein Sein und besiegt damit sich selbst und die Welt, weil er das Risiko der Selbstprüfung auf sich nimmt und so die menschliche Solidarität erfährt, deren Befehl lautet: „Erkenne dich selbst“. So erst kommt es zur Vereinigung Apollons, des Schönen, mit der Sonne, dem Guten und somit zur Wärme und Zuversicht. Silen gleicht im Essay, den Bretter ihm widmete, schließlich einem Weisen, der sich vom Wahn(sinn) nicht berauschen lässt. Obwohl er Teil der Prozession des Dionysos ist, vermag er Distanz zu halten. Bretter beschreibt in diesem Essay eigentlich die Auswüchse millenarischer und chiliastischer Welterlösungsbewegungen, seien sie von rechts oder links kommend: Das Wetteifern darum, wie von Silen beobachtet, wer der echte und der größere Anhänger des Dionysos ist, stellt eine kaum verdeckte Anspielung auf die ideologischen Perversionen des Stalinismus und des Faschismus mit ihren Identitätsfanatismen dar. Dionysos ist hierbei der große ideologische Verführer, dem die verzweifelte und unwissende Menge auf den Leim geht. Bretter geißelt die Gewalt, die Unduldsamkeit und den Terror seiner Zeit durch den Spiegel des Mythos. Das Problem Silens war zweifellos auch seins: „Was soll mit dem geschehen, der, wie Silenus, mehr weiß, als was er unternehmen kann und der langsam in die weiche Tiefe der Schlucht zwischen der Sehnsucht und den Möglichkeiten sinkt?“<sup data-fn="9de30abf-9ade-428a-bf58-66386a4107c6" class="fn"><a href="#9de30abf-9ade-428a-bf58-66386a4107c6" id="9de30abf-9ade-428a-bf58-66386a4107c6-link">31</a></sup> Auch Bretter war (wie Silen oder Ikaros) gefangen in den Zwängen seiner Zeit. </p>



<p>Im letzten Essay deutet Bretter keine Gestalt der griechischen Mythenwelt, allerdings sind die Lebensumstände Heraklits von Legenden umwoben, sein Denken gilt als besonders unverständlich und die wenigen überlieferten Fragmente sind Untersuchungsgegenstand von Philologen wie von Philosophen. Bretter begreift den Philosophen als (unverstandenen) Lehrer seiner Gemeinschaft. Heraklit erkennt die Irrtümer seiner Zeit und weiß um die Sinnlosigkeit des Treibens, des Rausches („Feuchte“), der den Alltag seiner Mitbürger beherrscht. Doch dringt er mit seinen Mahnungen und Erkenntnissen nicht durch und muss (so wie Ikaros) dessen gewahr werden, dass manchmal die objektiven Umstände der Zeit der Verbreitung bestimmter Ansichten abträglich sind. Der Philosoph erscheint als Eingeweihter und Wissender, der die Falschheit, den Irrweg und die Irrtümer seiner Zeit (er)kennt, jedoch von der Menge verlacht wird, die sich nicht traut, sich mit dem eigenen Leben und den eigenen Grenzsituationen (Zeitlichkeit) zu konfrontieren. Dieser Essay verdeutlicht die Nähe Bretters zu Platon am besten.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Von seiner Bedeutung her kommt dem Ikaros-Essay eine Sonderrolle zu, die sich auch darin äußert, dass er der erste Beitrag der Essay-Sammlung ist. Bretter ließ durch Ikaros die Frage aussprechen, die sich (auch in Siebenbürgen) selbstkritische Marxisten nur zu selten stellten: „Ist es rechtens, im Namen abstrakter Wahrheiten einen Menschen zu vernichten, ist es rechtens, das Werk des Menschen gegen den Menschen zu kehren?“<sup data-fn="0fa96941-285d-49d4-94ab-87c5a47215d4" class="fn"><a href="#0fa96941-285d-49d4-94ab-87c5a47215d4" id="0fa96941-285d-49d4-94ab-87c5a47215d4-link">32</a></sup> Und wenn die Antwort des Bretter-Ikaros lautet: „der Logik der Vernichtung muss das Recht des Lebens gegenübergestellt werden“<sup data-fn="5dc05180-8221-4338-a8ab-34c7df67e90d" class="fn"><a href="#5dc05180-8221-4338-a8ab-34c7df67e90d" id="5dc05180-8221-4338-a8ab-34c7df67e90d-link">33</a></sup>, dann war sie sowohl lokal gemeint als auch universell gültig. Ikaros, seine Entität und Identität, konstituierte sich durch sein Handeln selbst und unterwarf sich nicht dem Kollektiv: „Mit seiner Tat verwarf er das moralische Kriterium, die ethischen Normen der Zeit und wurde selbst zum Maßstab. Seine Tat gehörte nicht der Gegenwart an, sondern etwas anderem, vielleicht der Zukunft.“<sup data-fn="8d71a2fb-53f5-425d-b957-e0c71434520f" class="fn"><a href="#8d71a2fb-53f5-425d-b957-e0c71434520f" id="8d71a2fb-53f5-425d-b957-e0c71434520f-link">34</a></sup> Bretter wiederum erhob Ikaros samt den Dilemmata, Fragen und Qualen zu einem anthropologisch bedeutsamen Individuum, dessen Handeln Richtschnur im weltweiten Maßstab sei: „Ikaros ist aus den Labyrinthen ausgebrochen und hat so ein grundlegendes Problem der philosophischen Anthropologie gelöst: <em>Im Verhältnis zum Lebensgefühl bestimmte er die Tat als primär und anstelle der raffinierten Adjektive des Verzichts hat er das Handeln an die Herrschaft gelangen lassen.</em>“<sup data-fn="22757d1e-fcf7-463b-b493-5834eebda42e" class="fn"><a href="#22757d1e-fcf7-463b-b493-5834eebda42e" id="22757d1e-fcf7-463b-b493-5834eebda42e-link">35</a></sup></p>



<p>Die Protagonisten in den von Bretter gedeuteten Mythen sind also stets allein, allein gelassen. Sie stellen sich Traditionen und ihrer Gemeinschaft entgegen, denn in ihrer Bewusstheit erkennen sie, dass sie dies tun müssen, dass ihnen ein solches Schicksal aufgetragen wurde. Dabei sind sie stets unterwegs zwischen zwei Polen, Existenzweisen oder Welten bzw. Zuständen, zwischen Interessen (den eigenen und fremden) und Zielen. Das Schicksal ist aber noch kein Verhängnis, auf das kein Einfluss genommen werden könnte, so Bretter an seine Zeitgenossen. Die Schranken der eigenen Zeit können durch die in Handeln und Tat umgesetzte Erkenntnis überwunden werden und damit könne man der eigenen Zeit voraussein.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In der ungarischen philosophischen Essayistik besitzen Bretters Essays ihren angestammten Platz und keine Anthologie ungarischer Essays verzichtet z. B. auf seine <em>Legende des Ikaros</em>. Keine geringeren als Ágnes Heller oder Imre Kertész rühmten sich ihrer Bekanntschaft bzw. Verwandtschaft mit ihm. Es wäre wohlfeil und daher falsch, Bretter unter Hinweis auf die damaligen politisch-sozialen Gegebenheiten Romantizismus, einen Kult des Individuums und des Heroischen vorzuwerfen. Denn viele Aspekte seines Denkens, so etwa seine Verpflichtung zur Gemeinschaftlichkeit, seine Thesen zur Bedeutung von historischen Alternativen und deren Zusammenhang mit der reellen Gegenwart usw. konnten (und sollten) hier nicht erläutert werden. Eine monographische Analyse seines philosophischen Oeuvres steht noch aus. Selbstverständlich war er sich all der Grenzen des Handelns unter den Umständen einer Diktatur bewusst, deshalb griff er auf die antiken Mythen zurück. Mit ihrer Hilfe wollte er auf die Möglichkeit anthropologisch integrer Persönlichkeiten selbst unter den Bedingungen einer Diktatur hinweisen und hervorheben, dass auch unter solchen die Freiheit des Individuums eine des Geistes ist und dort beginnt, wo er (der Geist) herrscht: im individuellen Bewusstsein. Das Schreiben (u.a. von Essays) ist somit auch in den finstersten Zeiten eine Freiheitstat des Geistes.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Alle Übersetzungen aus den ungarischen Originaltexten von Franz Sz. Horváth. </em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>György Bretter: Die Legende des Ikaros</strong><sup data-fn="1d2a6bd1-5377-4fab-9022-8dc401c01e80" class="fn"><a href="#1d2a6bd1-5377-4fab-9022-8dc401c01e80" id="1d2a6bd1-5377-4fab-9022-8dc401c01e80-link">36</a></sup></h2>



<p>Ins Deutsche übertragen von Franz Sz. Horváth </p>



<p>Man erzählt, dass Daidalos, der Vater des Ikaros, seinen Sohn ermahnte: Er solle nicht zu nah am Meer fliegen, denn die Wellen könnten ihn verschlingen, noch zur Sonne, denn seine Flügel aus Wachs könnten schmelzen, und er in die Tiefe fallen. Ikaros hörte nicht auf den Rat, die Sonne zog ihn in ihren Bann und dafür bezahlte er mit seinem Leben.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Daidalos hatte seinen Sohn also gewarnt, ihm seine ganze Lebenserfahrung anvertraut, als er ihn zum Mittelweg trieb, aber Ikaros hörte nicht auf ihn; und so ging er zugrunde. Die Frage ist: Hatte Ikaros das Recht, zu sterben?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros wollte nicht den Tod, also besaß er das Recht, zu sterben; da er das Leben wollte, musste er sterben. Die Weisheit des Daidalos war Ikaros nicht genug; die Weisheit der ganzen Welt genügt dem nicht, der nach der Sonne strebt.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Die Weisheit ist die angehäufte Erfahrung, die gefilterte Essenz vergangener Verhaltensweisen, aber kein Modell zukünftigen Verhaltens. Wer in die Höhe fliegt, verliert die faktische Vergangenheit, denn die Gegenwart wandelt sich für ihn zur Vergangenheit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros konnte sich entscheiden: Entweder er hält sich fern der Sonne oder er stirbt; und er entschied sich. Daidalos erblickte in seiner Entscheidung nur die ungestüme Unüberlegtheit der Jugend, doch befand er sich damit im Unrecht. Denn Ikaros zauberte sich mit seiner Entscheidung älter als es sein Vater war: Er ließ die Zukunft als Gegenwart aufblitzen, er überholte das eigene Sein und das des Vaters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Diese Entscheidung war nicht unbedingt das Resultat einer bewussten Wahl: Sie entsprang vielmehr dem Wunsch nach Erkenntnis. Dennoch formulierte Ikaros durch seinen Flug zur Sonne ungewollt die grundlegende Frage der philosophischen Anthropologie: das Problem des Verhältnisses zwischen den objektiven Bedingungen der Zeit und den subjektiven Bedingungen des Menschen.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros entflog dem Zeitalter der Wachsflügel, obwohl die Weisheit der Zeit ihn warnend ermahnte. Dennoch flog er der Sonne um 2000 Jahre näher, als es die Umstände erlaubten: Deshalb ging er zugrunde. Er wählte die Zukunft und stürzte aus der Höhe ab. Doch er wählte das Leben, nicht den Tod.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Die Problematik der Wahl bezog sich eigentlich gar nicht auf das Leben oder den Tod, sondern darauf, ob er die Weisheit der Väter annimmt oder nicht. Ob er auf den ausgetretenen Pfaden voranschreitet oder etwas anderes suchen soll, die Sonne, das Licht anstelle des Graus.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros wählte die Strahlen. Aber besaß er das Recht, etwas anderes zu wollen, als das, was sein Vater für ihn ausgewählt hat? Er besaß es nicht. Denn die Pflicht des Daidalos bestand darin, im Namen des Lebens, der Sicherheit den Weg seines Sohnes zu bestimmen; das Recht des Sohnes wird bestimmt durch die Pflicht des Vaters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Er widersprach, durch sein Verhalten verletzte er das Gewohnheitsrecht, seine Vernichtung könnte daher als eine Strafe erscheinen. Aber verdient jemand eine Strafe, der die Sonne anstelle des Graus wählt? Das ist keine Frage des Verdienstes. Jede Epoche straft bewusst-unbewusst, ihre Grenzen vernichten die Taten, die Flügel, die ihre unteren oder oberen Grenzen verletzen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Hat es sich für Ikaros gelohnt, die Strafe zu übernehmen? Seine Entscheidung implizierte von vornherein die sichere Strafe, aber das beeinflusste seine Antwort mitnichten; für ihn hat sie sich also gelohnt. Wir können ihm seine Tat nicht vorwerfen. Er war sich ihrer Konsequenzen bewusst, dennoch entschied er sich für die Sonne. Dabei hätten ihn seine Wachsflügel auch nach Hause tragen können, wonach ihm Kinder geboren worden wären, denen er die väterliche Weisheit hätte weitergeben können. Als Vater kann er seinen Sohn womöglich höher steigen lassen, etwas näher an die Sonne oder tiefer, etwas näher an die Wellen. Ungeduldig war er, kein bedächtiger Architekt, sondern wagemutiger Planer. Deshalb stürzte er in seinem Flug hinab.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Warum eilte Ikaros in die Sonne? Weil er in ihr die unbefleckte Reinheit spürte und sich mit ihr vereinigen wollte, weil er keinen Kompromiss wollte, wies er jeden Handel zurück. Mit seiner Tat verwarf er das moralische Kriterium, die ethischen Normen der Zeit und wurde selbst zum Maßstab. Seine Tat gehörte nicht der Gegenwart an, sondern etwas anderem, vielleicht der Zukunft.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Für dieses „vielleicht“ opferte er sein Leben. Ob dieses „vielleicht“ ein Opfer verdient? Die dunkle Ahnung der Unsicherheit, der Entfernung? Das ist kein Dilemma, sondern stets das Problem des Handelns, der Entscheidung, des im Menschen aufblitzenden Handlungszwangs. Der Gedanke und die Überlegung geraten in den Hintergrund, und die Tat wird erneut, wie im Urzustand, primär.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Aber Ikaros hat sich in seiner Tat nicht mehr selbst erkannt, die Nachfahren müssen in seiner Tat sich selbst erkennen. Wenn ein Mensch den Weg des Ikaros annimmt, wann auch immer, dann hat sich das „Vielleicht-Opfer“ gelohnt. Wenn der Mensch sich in Ikaros erkennt, dann war dessen Untergang sinnvoll und wird etwas schön, was an sich weder schön noch hässlich ist: der Tod.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Als er in die Sonne stürzte, konnte er nicht wissen, ob man seine Tat annehmen würde oder nicht, ob sie sich lohne oder nicht. Nichts wusste er, sein Handeln war Zwang. Ikaros ist die Grenzenlosigkeit der konstruktiven Tat; der Jüngling, den die Götter lieben, weshalb sie ihn früh in den Himmel heben.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Und so löste er – bezogen auf einen sonderbaren Fall – die Gleichung der Anthropologie: Die subjektiven Möglichkeiten können die Grenzen der Zeit nicht überwinden, doch die Tat kann diese Grenzen zerstören. Die Handlungen erschaffen neue Normen, Ikaros wird zum neuen Horizont. Und darin liegt die Tragödie des Ikaros.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Nein, das ist kein persönliches Verhängnis, sondern eine Tragödie. Denn Ikaros wurde bemitleidet, dabei bedurfte er keines Mitleids. Man bewunderte ihn nicht, folgte ihm nicht, nur langsam mit unwürdiger Schleicherei und merkte dabei nicht, dass man ihm nacheiferte. Seine Tat wurde zu keinem pfeilgeraden Weg, sondern zu einer mit geschlungenen Pfaden durchschnittenen Wiese, auf der die Nachfahren bequem wanderten und ihre kleinen Kompromisse dem Leben Tag für Tag abrangen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Und dennoch hat es sich gelohnt, dennoch musste er dies tun: Die Tat fiel in Ikaros in ihre eigene Genese zurück, wie wenn das Lohnenswerte und das Müssen sich vereinen. Ikaros war gewissermaßen lebensunfähig, wenn das Leben lediglich ein Handeln zur Bewahrung der Existenz ist, wenn der Lebensprozess die Herstellung von Urteilen und Vorurteilen in immer neuen und anderen Legierungen ist.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Damit Ikaros sich entscheiden konnte, musste er mit den ihm anerzogenen Vorurteilen abrechnen. Sein Vater, der große Architekt, baute geradezu das Meisterwerk der Vorurteile und Kompromisse – das Labyrinth des Königs Minos, in dem Minotaurus, das Monster, weder leben noch sterben konnte. Was konnte denn Daidalos seinem Sohn überhaupt einflüstern?! Das Rasen des Ikaros zur Sonne hin war die einzige Chance, den Labyrinthen zu entkommen, irgendwohin, wo die Vorurteile die Tat noch nicht verunstaltet haben, wo die Konsequenzen noch rein sind und niemandem Schmerzen verursachen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>So warf Ikaros das andere große Problem der philosophischen Anthropologie auf: die Frage nach dem Verhältnis zwischen der Tat und den Konsequenzen der Tat. Er gab sein Leben für seine Tat, zog also die ultimativen Konsequenzen. War er nicht mehr verantwortlich? Kann denn überhaupt der Tod die Konsequenz des Lebens sein?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ein Leben kann einen bestimmten Tod bestätigen, aber der Tod kein Leben. Die tragische Konsequenz des Ikaros entstammte seinem Leben, jenem Leben, das das ganze Labyrinth des Überdrusses eingesehen hatte und einen Ausweg nur in der Sonne fand. Er wurde zu keinem Selbstmörder, sondern fand den einzigen für ihn möglichen Ausweg.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Und noch einmal: War er nicht verantwortlich, weil er gerade diesen Ausweg aufgezeigt hatte? Denn die Lösung des Individuums kann zu keinem Wert werden, nur dann, wenn sich in ihm die Verantwortung herauskristallisiert. In der Tat des Ikaros strahlt der Anspruch der Handlung selbst, der der Veränderung, die immer zeitgemäße Verantwortung und nicht der Anspruch eines Wie. Denn es gab Zeiten, die die Handlung in ein Labyrinth zwang. Ikaros konnte dennoch handeln, denn man kann immer handeln, wenn auch nicht aufsehenerregend, doch man kann und man muss auch. Verantwortlich sein bedeutet so viel wie verändern, sich nicht abfinden, formen, abwandeln, etwas anderes wollen. Ikaros wusste das. Er sah das Labyrinth. Er wusste, dass im Labyrinth nur Minotaurus, das abgetriebene „Weder-Mensch-noch-Tier“ leben kann, dass das menschliche Dasein nur ein menschliches Dasein sein kann, dass das Sein eines Wurms nur das eines Wurms sein kann und die Wahrheit darin besteht: dass der Mensch das Wurmsein nicht akzeptieren dürfe. Dafür muss man handeln, ansonsten geschieht die unwiederbringliche Verwandlung. Ikaros konnte daher nichts anderes tun: Er verwandelte sich in die Sonne, das Licht, das Beispiel. Er wählte die Wahrheit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>So gab er eine weitere Antwort auf ein Problem der philosophischen Anthropologie: <em>Die Wahl, die die Metamorphose des Menschen hervorruft, trägt nur dann die Wahrheit in sich, wenn sie in ihrer Tendenz nach vorne zeigt</em>, zum Menschlicheren hin. Die Reinheit der Wahrheit hat einen unerbittlichen Maßstab: die Freiheit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros wählte die Freiheit. Nicht das absolute Schweben der Bindungslosigkeit, sondern die Freiheit der Tat, die nach vorne zeigt. Er war kein Moralist, denn dann hätte er auf das Handeln verzichtet: Ikaros, der Moralist, hätte Mitleid mit seinem Vater gehabt, mit den mit Vorurteilen aufgedunsenen verwandtschaftlichen Tränensäcken. Er hätte sich selbst bemitleidet. Aber er war kein Moralist.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Er konnte kein Moralist sein in einer Zeit, in der die vorurteilsvollen Menschen alle Urteile vernichteten, indem sie die Köpfe abgeschnitten haben. Er wusste: Eine Freiheit, verkündet im Namen des Todes, ist keine Freiheit. Er sah deutlich: Es können keine Völker durch die Vernichtung anderer Völker geboren werden, niemand hat das Recht, Völker zu Müllhaufen der Geschichte zu erklären.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros wusste all das und er protestierte im Namen der Freiheit, der Reinheit, des Lichts. Seine Epoche ermöglichte ihm nur so viel. Sein Sturz war ein einziger großer Protest: Nachdem man ihn gesehen hatte, konnte man den Blick nicht mehr mit einer, die Schwäche verbergenden Feigheit auf den Boden richten. Nur noch auf ihn, nur nach oben hin.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros legte Zeugnis ab: Es gibt einen Horizont, auch dann, wenn die Zeit die Welt mit unbarmherzigen Labyrinthen vollstopft. Die Perspektive kann man nicht nehmen und wenn es sonst nichts gibt, dann ist der Horizont die Freiheit, das erhobene Haupt, das reine Sein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Daidalos, der alte, geniale Architekt, ängstigte sich im Namen des Lebens um den unbesonnenen Jüngling: Er war im Unrecht. Er selbst schrieb seinen Namen mit seinem Meisterwerk ins Gedächtnis der Nachwelt ein. Aber die Nachwelt braucht auch Vorbilder, nicht nur Meisterwerke. Aus diesen lernt sie den Respekt des menschlichen Talents, das die Zeit besiegt, aber nicht den Sieg über die Zeit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros steht für beispielhaftes Verhalten. Wir können es ihm nicht zum Vorwurf machen, dass er so einsam war, dass er nur allein schrie. Die Schuld trägt seine Epoche. Aber er musste sich mit der Frage auseinandersetzen: Ist es rechtens, im Namen abstrakter Wahrheiten einen Menschen zu vernichten, ist es rechtens, das Werk des Menschen gegen den Menschen zu kehren?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Und jener Ikaros, der sich im Klaren darüber war, wie töricht es ist, ein Labyrinth zu bauen, wusste, dass auch der Mord seine Logik besitzt, und er durchschaute den Kampf des in die Ecke gedrängten menschlichen Handelns. Still formulierte er in sich die für ihn einzig mögliche Antwort: Der Logik der Vernichtung muss das Recht des Lebens gegenübergestellt werden. Durch das Recht der reinen Tat, die beispielhaft ist, muss die Arbeit zur Schöpfung veredelt werden.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Das Recht des Lebens – das Recht der Tat. Der seines Handelns beraubte Mensch lebt nicht. Der Sinn des Handelns ist die Freiheit, die Schöpfung. Sein Ziel ist eine Gesellschaft, in der es nicht möglich ist, die menschliche Arbeit gegen den Menschen zu kehren, die Schöpfung gegen den Schöpfer zu wenden, in der die Geschöpfe des Menschen nicht mit einer unbarmherzigen Fremdheit dem Menschen gegenüberstehen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros ist somit eines der ersten Beispiele des aktiven Eintretens gegen die Entfremdung. Er war derjenige, der das Problem der Entfremdung vielleicht als erster formulierte: Warum verhält es sich so, dass das Labyrinth als Schöpfung, als die externalisierte Manifestation der menschlichen Kraft, den Menschen wie eine fremde Macht in die Falle lockt, dass dieser also das Opfer seiner eigenen Schöpfung wird?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Sollte dies das ewige Schicksal des Menschen sein? Nein, die Entfremdung dauert so lange, bis die im gesellschaftlichen Feld angesiedelten Gruppen den vollständigen und allseitigen Verkehr zwischen Individuum und Gesellschaft verschließen, bis die Gruppen mit ihrem falschen Bewusstsein eine unüberwindbare Mauer zwischen die Gesamtheit von Individuen und Gesellschaft errichten.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Für Ikaros wird die Sonne zum Symbol des echten Humanismus, der Einheit von Individuum und Gesellschaft. Mit seiner Tat baute er, die Geschichte weit überholend, eine Brücke über den Antagonismen, die sich als Bogen über dem siedenden und brodelnden gesellschaftlichen Feld spannte.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Er war demnach eigentlich kein Individualist, war kein in sich fallender, seine Individualität verabsolutierendes, nur in und für sich existierendes Menschenkind. Eine andere Menschlichkeit blitzte in ihm auf: die Unerbittlichkeit der Reinen, auch dann, als die Vollkommenheit, das Humanum lediglich als reine Utopie erschien.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Doch er war kein Utopist und auch kein Amokläufer eines idealen Horizonts, der verständnislos durch seine Epoche hindurchwatet und nach dem Unerreichbaren greift. In Ikaros manifestierte sich die abstrakte Möglichkeit in der Form einer frühgeborenen Wirklichkeit. Es ist ein bisschen wie das Spiel des Schicksals, dass Menschen, die dereinst recht bekommen werden, zu Vertretern einer solchen Epoche werden, zu der sie ansonsten keine Verbindung haben, die sie in Gänze gar nicht verstanden hat. Keineswegs deshalb, weil sie unverständlich sind, sondern weil all ihre Taten dem Gewohnten widersprechen, dem, was man von ihnen erwartet, weil sie etwas Fernes in sich haben und für die Besessenen etwas Unfassbares, Dunkles. Das ist nicht das Schicksal der Propheten, die mit Vorhersagen die Zukunft erschaffen wollen, auch nicht das von Weissagern, die mit zornigem Posaunenton das Bild der Zukunft tatsächlich erschaffen. Das ist das Schicksal eines jeden Ikaros, der sich nicht auf die Kraft des Wortes, des Bildes stützt, sondern jene Handlung, die das Wort und die Bilder erzeugt, zu einem Symbol reifen lässt.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ob er an die Kraft seiner eigenen Tat glaubte, ob er Schmerz angesichts des selbst erzeugten Schicksals verspürte? Offensichtlich beschäftigte ihn das Problem des Untergangs, stießen in ihm Schmerz und Glauben zusammen. Der Tod ist seins, die individuelle, nicht übertragbare und nicht nachzuempfindende Endlichkeit. Für andere ist der Glaube Vertrauen, die Möglichkeit, einen Ausweg zu finden. Sterben im Namen des Glaubens? Nein, in Ikaros finden wir nichts an Voreingenommenheit: Er flog um der Freiheit willen in die Sonne.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Doch für welche Freiheit starb Ikaros? Ist die Freiheit eine abstrakte Wahrheit oder, wenn sie das nicht ist, dann lediglich die Gesamtheit der Möglichkeiten, das Maximum innerhalb der Schranken der Epoche?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Nein, die Freiheit kann nicht die Einheit der Erkenntnis und der begrenzten Taten sein. Die Erkenntnis wagt sich immer weit hinaus, die Tat muss ihr auch folgen. Die Freiheit: die die Schranken zerschmetternde Tat. Wenn Millionen hungern, ist eine solche Tat noch notwendiger, denn die Schranken zwingen den Menschen in die Knie und ihn aufzurichten bedeutet, die Epoche zu transzendieren.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Aufrichten? Wir wissen, Ikaros war kein Moralist: Das Aufrichten deutete er nicht als Erlösung, sondern als jemand an der Spitze, der beweist, dass die Möglichkeit des Handelns dem Menschen nicht entwendet werden kann. Und wenn an den Grenzen der Umsetzung der Möglichkeiten Bajonette und Panzer wachen? Nein, lasst uns das Ikaros nicht mehr fragen; schließlich gelangten die Menschen erst im Laufe der Jahrtausende zu dieser Frage. Doch beschritten sie den Weg des massenhaften Handelns als die Zeit reif wurde. Bis dahin ließen sie in sich den Widerstand á la Ikaros wachsen und als die Zeit reif für den Gedanken wurde, dann haben sie ihr Leben massenhaft geopfert um der Freiheit der Tat willen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dennoch findet in Ikaros die in den Labyrinthen entsetzte Zeit auf sich, sie nimmt ihn mit und zaubert ihn damit zeitlos. Nicht die Form seines Aufstands, sondern seine unbezwingbare Sehnsucht nach Reinheit, sein in die Möglichkeit der Tat gesetzter Glaube wurden zu einer Norm.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Das sind solche Züge seiner Persönlichkeit, die jenes anthropologische Problem vervollständigen und beantworten, was denn <em>die vollständige, integre Persönlichkeit sei</em>. Das bedeutet nicht nur Wissen, denn das Wissen in all seinem Umfang anzueignen, ist unmöglich; nicht nur das aufmerksame Überblicken dessen, welche Schranken dem Handeln gesetzt sind. Sondern es bedeutet die Tat, die Belagerung der Schranken. Und wenn die Zeit noch nicht reif ist, dann das geduldige und dennoch kühne Jäten der Vorurteile. Und wenn die Vorurteile noch nicht reif sind, um gejätet zu werden? Dann die Ausstrahlung des in die Zukunft gesetzten rationalen Glaubens. Ein solcher Glaube strahlte aus Ikaros in die Zukunft.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Denn auch Ikaros ist zur Sonne geworden: Er machte die gnadenlose Feuerkugel menschlich: Er verstand das ihr entsprungene Leben, also vereinigte er sich mit ihr. Da zählte es gar nicht mehr, dass diese finale Begegnung ihn sein Leben kostete, denn darin bestand seine Freiheit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros ist nicht der Robinson der Sonne, des Lichts, der Reinheit. Ein Mensch ist er – mit gewiss dunklen und vielleicht unreinen Sehnsüchten. Ein Teenager mit unbestimmten Ahnungen: Aber in dem Moment war er in der Lage im Sinne der wahren Möglichkeiten des Menschen zu handeln, nicht so wie sonst, als die eifrig verdeckten Verzerrungen Überhand nehmen und die Tat zu einer Verstauchung wird.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Daidalos hat seinen Sohn nicht verstanden: Er konnte ihn auch nicht verstehen, denn er hat für sich selbst nie die Vollkommenheit der Tat herauskristallisiert. Auch in seinen Sohn projizierte er irgendwann nur die Ungewissheit des Mannwerdens. Er konnte also nicht wissen, dass man auch ohne dieses reif werden kann, in einem unerwarteten Moment durch die Revolution der Persönlichkeit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>War Ikaros unglücklich? Glück ist in seiner Allgemeinheit ein Lebensgefühl des Augenblicks, ein Gefühl der Vollständigkeit, entstanden aus einer besonderen Verbindung der Sinne und des Geistes. Als er sich in die Richtung der Sonne erhob, war Ikaros ganz bestimmt glücklich. Seine Muskeln ließen seinen jungen Körper gehorsam fliegen, in seinem Geist blitzte die Genugtuung auf, die Bindungen des Labyrinths abgeworfen zu haben. Da war er also glücklich.&nbsp;</p>



<p>War er glücklich, als er bereits nach unten stürzte, mitten in seinem Untergang? Wen die Götter erheben, sodann mit gnadenloser Erbarmungslosigkeit abstoßen, der ist bestimmt unglücklich, denn er hatte die Vollkommenheit nicht aus sich heraus entfaltet, sondern sie wurde ihm auf die Schultern gelegt, er wurde damit ergänzt. Ikaros zog die Vollkommenheit durch seine Tat selbst an sich heran: Er transzendierte sich selbst. Er wurde mehr als er war, er überschritt die allen gegebenen Schranken der Angst, des Vorurteils, der Bequemlichkeit. Unglücklich konnte er auch in seinem Untergang nicht sein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Denn selbst in seinem Untergang kann der nicht unglücklich sein, der auch nur für einen Augenblick die Genugtuung der schöpferischen, reinen Tat gefunden hat. Es gibt welche, die sich ihr ganzes Leben lang darauf vorbereiten, doch wird ihr Wunsch danach später von der dumpfen Gleichgültigkeit ausgemerzt. Es gibt auch solche, die unvermittelt aus dem eigenen Schatten hervorspringen. Ikaros nahm selbst in seinem Untergang noch seine Genugtuung mit, er konnte nicht unglücklich sein. Glücklich auch nicht: Die Vernichtung kann kein Glück sein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Der Mensch ist nicht nur glücklich oder unglücklich, für ihn gibt es nicht nur diese beiden, einander ausschließenden Möglichkeiten. Mit seinen alltäglichen Taten kann er mal die eine, mal die andere stärken. Mit seinem Handeln erschafft er sich seine Vollkommenheit neu oder entleert und beraubt sich selbst. Aber wenn er auch nur einmal sich selbst transzendiert hat, bleibt in ihm das belebende, glückliche Gefühl der Genugtuung. Im unglücklichen Sturz des Ikaros blinkte Glück auf.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Es ist also unmöglich, Ikaros mit dem allgemeinsten Kategorienpaar des Lebensgefühls zu charakterisieren; die Eigentümlichkeit seiner Lage ist die Erschaffung eines neuen Lebensgefühls, die Verneinung des alten. Der Grundzug des neuen: der befreite Jubel der Schöpfung, worin nichts mehr an die saure Stickigkeit der Gleichgültigkeit erinnert, an die dumpfe Langweiligkeit der Gewöhnung. Daidalos konnte das nicht fühlen: Das gehörte Ikaros allein.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Wenn Ikaros nicht in die Tiefe gestürzt wäre, hätten die Menschen es nie gelernt, anders zu fühlen. Das Handeln bestimmt das Lebensgefühl bzw. das Fehlen des Handelns oder dessen halbfertige Durchführung. Die Tat des Ikaros hat den Jubel aus seiner Falle befreit. Freilich nur für jene, die ihm nachgingen, die ihm folgten, die zur Sonne hin gestartet sind.&nbsp;</p>



<p>König Minos sperrte sogar die Dunkelheit in das Labyrinth, doch damit zog er nur die letzte Konsequenz daraus, was er woanders erfahren durfte, dort, wo man eifrig bemüht war, das Licht einzuzäunen, folgerichtig die Dummheit und Voreingenommenheit zu vermehren. Er sah, dass die reinen, flachen Ebenen mit unverständlichen Mauern barrikadiert wurden. Oder hatten die Wände der Vorurteile doch ihren Sinn gehabt?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Nur so viel, damit alle im Licht die Schatten erblicken, selbst Schatten werfen und sie alle mit dem Gefühl der Minderwertigkeit durchtränkt werden, der trägen Bitterkeit, die Rückgrate bricht und der Übelkeit ob der Sinnlosigkeit des Seins. Minos hat nur die negative Probe gemacht, nichts Neues erschaffen, sondern nur die negative Form des Alten.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ikaros ist aus den Labyrinthen ausgebrochen und hat so ein grundlegendes Problem der philosophischen Anthropologie gelöst: <em>Im Verhältnis zum Lebensgefühl bestimmte er die Tat als primär und anstelle der raffinierten Adjektive des Verzichts hat er das Handeln an die Herrschaft gelangen lassen.</em>&nbsp;</p>



<p>Das ist die Legende des Ikaros.&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Franz Sz. Horváth</strong> studierte Philosophie und Geschichte an der Universität Heidelberg; 2006 Promotion ebenda mit einer Arbeit über die ungarische Minderheit in Rumänien; 2006–2007 wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter an der Universität Southampton, danach Stipendiat des Leo Baeck Fellowship Programms. 2010–2012: Referendariat für das Lehramt an Gymnasien, seit 2012 Studienrat bzw. seit 2017 Oberstudienrat an der Immanuel-Kant-Schule in Rüsselsheim. Forschungsschwerpunkte: osteuropäische Minderheitenfrage, Antisemitismusforschung, Ideologiegeschichte, jüdisch-nichtjüdische Beziehungen, Holocaust, Lokalgeschichte </p>


<ol class="wp-block-footnotes"><li id="461d4886-017b-4a02-b351-35d0504d19ce">Rüdiger Bubner: Antike Themen und ihre moderne Verwandlung. Frankfurt 1992, S. 14. <a href="#461d4886-017b-4a02-b351-35d0504d19ce-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 1 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="64b4bb4f-8376-474c-be8d-caec8f98671c">Bubner: Themen, S. 16.  <a href="#64b4bb4f-8376-474c-be8d-caec8f98671c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 2 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="dbbfefcc-60f2-414d-be96-48c1742f78ec">Christoph Jamme: „Gott an hat ein Gewand“. Grenzen und Perspektiven philosophischer Mythos-Theorien der Gegenwart. Frankfurt 1999, S. 78. <a href="#dbbfefcc-60f2-414d-be96-48c1742f78ec-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 3 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8883b74d-201a-4a4c-89d8-a18c9b1eaf22">Jamme: Grenzen, S. 81.  <a href="#8883b74d-201a-4a4c-89d8-a18c9b1eaf22-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 4 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c8776988-0ae9-408c-99e5-215d0d354db4">Anton Grabner-Haider: Die Welt der Mythen. In: Helma Marx (Hg.): Das Buch der Mythen aller Zeiten aller Völker. Graz u.a. 1999, S. 696–731, hier insbes. S. 718–725; Jamme: Grenzen, S. 81–86. <a href="#c8776988-0ae9-408c-99e5-215d0d354db4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 5 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="2692eb69-942b-46a2-8cfd-4ac3c8ac7824">Zitat aus Jamme: Grenzen, S. 85; vgl. Grabner-Haider: Mythen, S. 724. <a href="#2692eb69-942b-46a2-8cfd-4ac3c8ac7824-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 6 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="540390d2-16c9-4ef2-854e-909494ae8759">Ágnes Heller: Bicikliző majom [Der Affe auf dem Fahrrad]. Budapest 1999, S. 237. <a href="#540390d2-16c9-4ef2-854e-909494ae8759-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 7 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="920de286-bf52-4078-9be8-bd50228ca437">Zu Nicolae Ceaușescus Innenpolitik vgl. Christof Kunze: Nicolae Ceauşescu. Eine Biographie. Berlin 2009; zur Erdrosselung des Kulturlebens der Minderheiten siehe Othmar Kolar: Rumänien und seine Minderheiten. Köln u.a. 1997, S. 344–361. <a href="#920de286-bf52-4078-9be8-bd50228ca437-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 8 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="06657f13-2cf6-4242-b2e6-cbd6e1ef4e5b">Zu Imre Tóth vgl. Andreas Becker, Christian Reiß (Hgg.): Imre Tóth (1921–2010) und die Institutionalisierung der Wissenschaftsgeschichte an der Universität Regensburg. Regensburg 2021. <a href="#06657f13-2cf6-4242-b2e6-cbd6e1ef4e5b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 9 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d6992d74-9be6-495e-9092-482563f10e5a">Ernő Gáll: Pandora visszatérése. A reményről és a méltóságról [Die Rückkehr der Pandora. Über die Hoffnung und die Würde]. Bukarest 1979. <a href="#d6992d74-9be6-495e-9092-482563f10e5a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 10 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b378a131-6f2e-4540-8cfa-db7a73b2d839">Gálls wechselvolle Vita, seine Ethik der Würde und Verantwortung sowie seine Auseinandersetzung mit dem Holocaust wird aufgearbeitet in: Franz Sz. Horváth: Kommunist – Jude – Ungar? Leben und Werk des heimatlosen Philosophen Ernő Gáll. Wiesbaden 2023. <a href="#b378a131-6f2e-4540-8cfa-db7a73b2d839-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 11 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7a16d96b-5d42-44d1-85ef-445a79999283">Zu Sütő und seinem Essay vgl. Horváth: Kommunist, S. 126–128. <a href="#7a16d96b-5d42-44d1-85ef-445a79999283-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 12 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="2be637dd-8c46-4ef3-bf0e-d5795dbc7f93">Horváth: Kommunist, S. 127. <a href="#2be637dd-8c46-4ef3-bf0e-d5795dbc7f93-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 13 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c333ef0b-0ace-4a1d-869a-e8368c0896d9">Für eine Analyse von Sütős Werk vgl. Zoltán Bertha: Sütő András [András Sütő]. Pozsony 1998. <a href="#c333ef0b-0ace-4a1d-869a-e8368c0896d9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 14 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="81c639b3-5822-497f-9b19-789623155c29"> Sándor Balázs: Emlékeim Gyuriról [Meine Erinnerungen an Gyuri]. In: Péter Egyed (Hg.): Bretter György filozófiája. Értelmezések, dokumentumok, visszaemlékezések [Die Philosophie György Bretters. Deutungen, Dokumente, Erinnerungen]. Kolozsvár 2007, S. 225–234, hier S. 227. <a href="#81c639b3-5822-497f-9b19-789623155c29-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 15 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="37da34eb-c8ce-4d7f-b72b-d8b834d6916b">Die biographischen Angaben sind einem kurzen Lebenslauf Bretters entnommen, abgedruckt in Egyed (Hg.): Bretter, S. 295. <a href="#37da34eb-c8ce-4d7f-b72b-d8b834d6916b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 16 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7179949c-885a-4318-b95a-ed92c8c47118">Im weiter unten abgedruckten Essay <em>Die Legende des Ikaros</em> heißt es: „Warum eilte Ikaros in die Sonne? Weil er in ihr die unbefleckte Reinheit spürte …“ <a href="#7179949c-885a-4318-b95a-ed92c8c47118-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 17 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="03339f4b-8e70-450a-a081-575fc7b5261d">István Angi: Torzóba kényszerült főművek utóéletei [Die Nachleben von Hauptwerken, die Torsi geblieben sind]. In: Egyed (Hg.): Bretter, S. 161–224. <a href="#03339f4b-8e70-450a-a081-575fc7b5261d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 18 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4a9ccd88-9fee-4233-93a1-8e6f13ed4e73">Eine Auswahl aus Bretters Texten bietet etwa der posthum erschienene Sammelband György Bretter: Itt és mást. Válogatott írások [Hier und etwas Anderes. Ausgewählte Schriften]. Bukarest 1979. <a href="#4a9ccd88-9fee-4233-93a1-8e6f13ed4e73-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 19 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6f1d71ae-8e4c-4057-9c41-5c963947878e">Egyed (Hg.): Bretter, S. 45. <a href="#6f1d71ae-8e4c-4057-9c41-5c963947878e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 20 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="37623da4-5966-4022-a901-40fd827adf70">György Bretter: Vágyak, emberek, Istenek. Tanulmányok, esszék [Sehnsüchte, Menschen, Götter. Aufsätze, Essays]. Bukarest 1970; ders.: Párbeszéd a jelennel. Esszék, tanulmányok [Dialog mit der Gegenwart. Essays, Aufsätze]. Bukarest 1973.  <a href="#37623da4-5966-4022-a901-40fd827adf70-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 21 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d463a60d-c1b0-4680-b337-3b5a6e50b3d6">György Bretter: Milyen is az angol esszé? [Wie sieht noch einmal ein englischer Essay aus?] In ders.: Vágyak, S. 264–270, hier v.a. 264–266. <a href="#d463a60d-c1b0-4680-b337-3b5a6e50b3d6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 22 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="23edca1e-dcd3-4a8e-a754-4491ade3fda0">Im Original: Esszék és életek. In ders.: Párbeszéd, S. 274–296. <a href="#23edca1e-dcd3-4a8e-a754-4491ade3fda0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 23 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e863d893-201f-45b5-bd35-2360cae06da9">Bretter: Esszék, S. 278f. <a href="#e863d893-201f-45b5-bd35-2360cae06da9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 24 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="71b2f883-c377-477a-9ef9-2adfd8075567">Egyed (Hg.): Bretter, S. 295. <a href="#71b2f883-c377-477a-9ef9-2adfd8075567-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 25 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e24e210f-8ca6-4454-8a11-60e0d8a58916">Bretter: Elöljáróban [Zum Geleit]. In ders.: Párbeszéd, S. 7. <a href="#e24e210f-8ca6-4454-8a11-60e0d8a58916-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 26 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8645ad20-6032-4be6-9b35-d6e54edb9ad6">Bretter: Szükségletünk: a filozófia [Unser Bedürfnis: die Philosophie]. In: ebenda., S. 8.  <a href="#8645ad20-6032-4be6-9b35-d6e54edb9ad6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 27 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ba1dde32-62b9-4169-b8d3-c421ccda57b6">Ebenda, S. 11. <a href="#ba1dde32-62b9-4169-b8d3-c421ccda57b6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 28 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1f8d080f-7f78-4f0a-842d-ea3ca5f3c8d6">Ebenda, S. 13. <a href="#1f8d080f-7f78-4f0a-842d-ea3ca5f3c8d6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 29 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ad8577ad-3f95-4093-abf2-d71fe6d57cd9">Egyed (Hg.): Bretter, S. 59. <a href="#ad8577ad-3f95-4093-abf2-d71fe6d57cd9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 30 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9de30abf-9ade-428a-bf58-66386a4107c6">György Bretter: Valamikor Silenus őrizte a forrásokat [Silen bewachte einst die Quellen] In: ders.: Itt, S. 271. <a href="#9de30abf-9ade-428a-bf58-66386a4107c6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 31 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0fa96941-285d-49d4-94ab-87c5a47215d4">Ders.: Ikarosz legendája [Die Legende des Ikaros]. In: ders.: Itt, 43.   <a href="#0fa96941-285d-49d4-94ab-87c5a47215d4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 32 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5dc05180-8221-4338-a8ab-34c7df67e90d">Ebenda, S. 43. <a href="#5dc05180-8221-4338-a8ab-34c7df67e90d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 33 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8d71a2fb-53f5-425d-b957-e0c71434520f">Ebenda, S. 40. <a href="#8d71a2fb-53f5-425d-b957-e0c71434520f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 34 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="22757d1e-fcf7-463b-b493-5834eebda42e">Ebenda, S. 47 (Hervorhebung im Original). <a href="#22757d1e-fcf7-463b-b493-5834eebda42e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 35 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1d2a6bd1-5377-4fab-9022-8dc401c01e80">Die Übersetzung aus dem Ungarischen erfolgt nach: Ikaros legendája. In: György Bretter: Itt és mást. Válogatott írások [Hier und etwas Anderes]. Bukarest 1979, S. 39–47. Übersetzt von Franz Sz. Horváth. Alle Hervorhebungen folgen dem ungarischen Original. <a href="#1d2a6bd1-5377-4fab-9022-8dc401c01e80-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 36 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li></ol><p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/die-legende-des-ikaros-anmerkungen-zu-den-parabeln-von-gyoergy-bretter/">Die Legende des Ikaros: Anmerkungen zu den Parabeln von György Bretter   </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<title>Der Wunschkandidat fällt durch. Securitate und Kultusdepartement manipulieren die Wahl des Hermannstädter Stadtpfarrers  </title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/der-wunschkandidat-fallt-durch-securitate-und-kultusdepartement-manipulieren-die-wahl-des-hermannstadter-stadtpfarrers/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 13:14:07 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Dokumente]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=833</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Hannelore Baier, Hermannstadt/Sibiu Ausgewertet und auszugsweise ediert wird im vorliegenden Beitrag die Securitate-Akte von Otto Karl Reich, Pfarrer der Evangelischen Kirche A. B. in Rumänien (EKR). Von Securitate-Offizieren mikroverfilmt befindet sie sich unter der Signatur MFI 9893 SB in den Archiven des Nationalen Rats für die Erforschung der Archive der Securitate (Arhivele Consiliului Național pentru Studierea [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/der-wunschkandidat-fallt-durch-securitate-und-kultusdepartement-manipulieren-die-wahl-des-hermannstadter-stadtpfarrers/">Der Wunschkandidat fällt durch. Securitate und Kultusdepartement manipulieren die Wahl des Hermannstädter Stadtpfarrers  </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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<p>Hannelore Baier, Hermannstadt/Sibiu</p>



<p>Ausgewertet und auszugsweise ediert wird im vorliegenden Beitrag die Securitate-Akte von Otto Karl Reich, Pfarrer der Evangelischen Kirche A. B. in Rumänien (EKR). Von Securitate-Offizieren mikroverfilmt befindet sie sich unter der Signatur MFI 9893 SB<sup data-fn="86dd9c9e-7a40-402a-9ccf-f17a319543e0" class="fn"><a href="#86dd9c9e-7a40-402a-9ccf-f17a319543e0" id="86dd9c9e-7a40-402a-9ccf-f17a319543e0-link">1</a></sup> in den Archiven des Nationalen Rats für die Erforschung der Archive der Securitate (Arhivele Consiliului Național pentru Studierea Arhivelor Securității – ACNSAS). Die Akte umfasst insgesamt 229 Seiten, und zwar 208 Seiten aus der ursprünglichen Akte von Reich sowie 21 Seiten, die mit seiner Person „konnektiert“ worden sind, d. h. in Akten anderer abgeheftet wurden, aber auf Reich Bezug nehmen. Fälschlicherweise sind darunter auch Unterlagen, die seinen Sohn Otto Reich, ebenfalls evangelischer Pfarrer, betreffen.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Otto Karl Reich (1903–1991) war zwischen 1930 und 1936 Pfarrer in Schweischer (rum. Fișer, ung. Sövénység), zwischen 1936 und 1938 Stadtprediger<sup data-fn="1faa3b57-01e8-4044-8f59-25016f7ac1a1" class="fn"><a href="#1faa3b57-01e8-4044-8f59-25016f7ac1a1" id="1faa3b57-01e8-4044-8f59-25016f7ac1a1-link">2</a></sup> in Schäßburg (rum. Sighișoara, ung. Segesvár) und sodann zwischen 1938 und 1957 Pfarrer in Tartlau (rum. Prejmer, ung. Prázsmár). 1957 wurde er zum Stadtprediger in Hermannstadt (rum. Sibiu, ung. Nagy-Szeben) gewählt. Dieses Amt hatte er bis zur Verrentung 1971 inne. Zwischen 1958 und 1962 gehörte er dem Konsistorium des Hermannstädter Kirchenbezirkes als geistliches Mitglied an.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dargestellt und dokumentiert wird anhand der Akte beziehungsweise einiger daraus übersetzter und bearbeiteter Dokumente ein Beispiel, wie die Staatsmacht – repräsentiert durch Vertreter des Kultusdepartements und der Securitate – Kirchenwahlen manipuliert und beeinflusst haben. Im vorliegenden Fall handelt es sich um die Vorgänge während der Stadtpfarrerwahl 1962 in Hermannstadt, die dazu geführt haben, dass Pfarrer Reich, der sich großer Beliebtheit unter den Gemeindemitgliedern und den Pfarrerkollegen erfreute und der Wunschkandidat von Bischof Friedrich Müller war, auf die Kandidatur verzichtete. Durchsetzen konnten die Repräsentanten der Staatsmacht als Stadtpfarrer jedoch auch nicht ihren Wunschkandidaten: den Dechanten des Hermannstädter Kirchenbezirkes Johann Gross. Gewählt wurde aber ein Pfarrer, der mit ihnen kollaborierte.<sup data-fn="07c7cdae-2f82-40d9-83be-5cc4f6bb142c" class="fn"><a href="#07c7cdae-2f82-40d9-83be-5cc4f6bb142c" id="07c7cdae-2f82-40d9-83be-5cc4f6bb142c-link">3</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Pfarrer Otto Reich</h2>



<p>Otto Reich war der Sohn des Lehrers, Pfarrers und Autors Carl Reich (1872–1953). Dieser gehörte dem Kreis der bekannten siebenbürgisch-sächsischen Mundart- und/oder volkstümlichen Dichter und Komponisten (darunter Carl Römer, Ernst Thullner, Otto Piringer, Schuster Dutz, Christine Maly-Theil) an. Dieses väterliche Erbe setzte insbesondere der jüngere Bruder Karl Gustav Reich (1905–1997) fort, der in Tübingen, Berlin, Perugia und Bukarest Theologie, Germanistik, Romanistik und Pädagogik studiert und die Lehrerlaufbahn eingeschlagen hatte. Er wirkte unter anderen am evangelischen Landesseminar, an der Brukenthalschule und dem Musiklyzeum in Hermannstadt sowie an der Pädagogischen Schule und der Bergschule in Schäßburg – allesamt Renommee-Einrichtungen der Siebenbürger Sachsen –, war aber auch als Autor von in Mundart verfassten Lustspielen und heiteren Versen bekannt.<sup data-fn="277f9bdc-bfaa-4f81-ab96-7560c6dd6cf6" class="fn"><a href="#277f9bdc-bfaa-4f81-ab96-7560c6dd6cf6" id="277f9bdc-bfaa-4f81-ab96-7560c6dd6cf6-link">4</a></sup> Der in dieser Familie und Tradition aufgewachsene Otto Reich hatte zwischen 1923 und 1928 in Tübingen und Berlin Theologie studiert, war ebenfalls volksnah, gesellig und dichterisch begabt und deswegen bei Menschen seines Umfelds und Kollegen beliebt – ein Grund, um von den Vertretern der Staatsmacht mit Argwohn betrachtet zu werden.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Für Pfarrer Otto Reich beginnt sich die Securitate im Frühjahr 1956 zu interessieren, vermutlich infolge eines abgefangenen Briefes an Johann Untsch in Reichesdorf (rum. Richiș, ung. Riomfalva), in dem Rückkehrer ins Land<sup data-fn="5ce996d1-9582-4a10-ac93-2b344edd51bc" class="fn"><a href="#5ce996d1-9582-4a10-ac93-2b344edd51bc" id="5ce996d1-9582-4a10-ac93-2b344edd51bc-link">5</a></sup> und die Warnung, eine solche sei sehr gefährlich, erwähnt werden.<sup data-fn="c0b0b53b-7bd5-4523-a850-c8e2fbb7ed44" class="fn"><a href="#c0b0b53b-7bd5-4523-a850-c8e2fbb7ed44" id="c0b0b53b-7bd5-4523-a850-c8e2fbb7ed44-link">6</a></sup> Der nach Pfarrer Reich befragte Informant „Gross Richard“ – aus dem Inhalt des Berichtes kann geschlussfolgert werden, dass er Mitglied der evangelischen Gemeinschaft in Tartlau ist – erteilt am 25. Mai 1956 sehr detailliert Auskunft.<sup data-fn="9537bdfd-f96b-45e6-a6a8-e67c6233e03c" class="fn"><a href="#9537bdfd-f96b-45e6-a6a8-e67c6233e03c" id="9537bdfd-f96b-45e6-a6a8-e67c6233e03c-link">7</a></sup> Die an sich positiven Angaben über Reich werden vom bearbeitenden Offizier verzerrt und nach den ideologischen Richtlinien jener Jahre gedeutet weitergegeben.<sup data-fn="943f4731-8ed7-4ac1-99db-94409c937781" class="fn"><a href="#943f4731-8ed7-4ac1-99db-94409c937781" id="943f4731-8ed7-4ac1-99db-94409c937781-link">8</a></sup> Der Informant teilt mit, Reich habe sich nach dem Beginn seiner Amtszeit in Tartlau „viel um die Jugend gekümmert, bevor die Jugendarbeit von der Deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien<sup data-fn="9ba15ae6-5539-4fe1-8ae6-bc9ee91d337e" class="fn"><a href="#9ba15ae6-5539-4fe1-8ae6-bc9ee91d337e" id="9ba15ae6-5539-4fe1-8ae6-bc9ee91d337e-link">9</a></sup> übernommen wurde“. Der Offizier schreibt in seinem Bericht: „Er [der Pfarrer] hat begonnen, sich um die Organisierung der deutschen Jugend in hitleristischen Organisationen zu kümmern.“ Der Informant gibt an, Reich habe rasch die Sympathie der Gemeindemitglieder gewonnen, weil er Jugendarbeitet geleistet, einen Chor gegründet und Theaterstücke inszeniert habe und dass die Leute nun wieder zur Kirche gingen. Diese Feststellung interpretiert der Offizier folgendermaßen: „Er [der Pfarrer] hat bewirkt, dass die deutsche Bevölkerung von Tartlau sehr zahlreich die Kirche besucht, indem er versuchte und auch heute versucht, ihnen möglichst viel Religion einzutrichtern.“ Im Informantenbericht von „Gross Richard“ unterstrich der auswertende Securitate-Offizier den Absatz, Reich habe von Juni bis Oktober 1941 als Pfarrer im Rang eines Hauptmanns am Krieg teilgenommen und sei als Geistlicher dem Befehlsstab des Armeekorps 5 zugeordnet gewesen – er hatte also als Angehöriger der rumänischen Armee an der Ostfront im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion teilgenommen – und dass er 1945 zur „Aufbauarbeit“ in die UdSSR deportiert gewesen sei.<sup data-fn="3578ab91-d995-42d2-8e45-36a5477d089d" class="fn"><a href="#3578ab91-d995-42d2-8e45-36a5477d089d" id="3578ab91-d995-42d2-8e45-36a5477d089d-link">10</a></sup> Die Kriegsteilnahme an der Ostfront und der Aufenthalt in einem Arbeitslager waren – selbst wenn vom rumänischen Generalstab befehligt beziehungsweise von der rumänischen Regierung mitangeordnet, Ende der 1950er-Jahre negativ zu bewertende Merkmale in der Biografie, da sie von vorherigen Regimes angeordnet worden waren. „Gross Richard“ berichtet zudem, dass Reich im sowjetischen Arbeitslager einen Chor gebildet und geleitet sowie im Kohlenbergwerk gearbeitet habe und dass er wegen eines Magenleidens bereits im Dezember 1945 heimgekommen sei. Bis zur Verstaatlichung der Schulen im Jahr 1948 sei Reich in Tartlau auch als Lehrer tätig gewesen. Infolge von Krieg und Deportation in die Sowjetunion hatte in den deutschen Gemeinschaften großer Mangel an Erziehern geherrscht. Die Aussage des Informanten, Reich leite in der Gemeinde den Kirchenchor, dem Erwachsene und Jugendliche angehören, ergänzt der Offizier in seinem Bericht an die übergeordnete Stelle, Reich sei „heuer [1956] der Initiator der Neuorganisierung der deutschen Jugendlichen in Jugendorganisationen nach dem alten Muster der religiösen Organisationen“ gewesen. Gemeint sind die Bruder- und Schwesternschaften, in welche die Jungen beziehungsweise Mädchen nach der Konfirmation eintraten. Dieser Hinweis dürfte die Offiziere nun erst recht hellhörig gemacht und zur aufmerksamen Beobachtung Reichs geführt haben.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Der politische Kontext</h2>



<p>Die deutsche Minderheit sah sich ab dem Bündniswechsel Rumäniens am 23. August 1944 einer Periode der kollektiven Diskriminierung ausgesetzt, die sich bis zu ihrer Einbeziehung in den Transformationsprozess der Gesellschaft 1948/49 fortsetzte.<sup data-fn="077574c2-81ff-4ee7-89cc-87857764fa3b" class="fn"><a href="#077574c2-81ff-4ee7-89cc-87857764fa3b" id="077574c2-81ff-4ee7-89cc-87857764fa3b-link">11</a></sup> Zu Beginn der 1950er-Jahre trat eine Lockerung der gegen sie getroffenen Repressionen und die Gewährung breiter kultureller Rechte ein.<sup data-fn="70850f96-45dd-4392-b591-c40b19d2af24" class="fn"><a href="#70850f96-45dd-4392-b591-c40b19d2af24" id="70850f96-45dd-4392-b591-c40b19d2af24-link">12</a></sup> Friedrich Müller (1889–1969), zwischen 1945 und 1969 Bischof der EKR, hielt die Pfarrer an, die von der Deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien (DViR) aufgelösten traditionellen Organisationsstrukturen der siebenbürgisch-sächsischen Gemeinschaften – die Bruder- und Schwesternschaften sowie die Nachbarschaften – wiederzubeleben, um den Gemeinschaften Halt zu verleihen, aber auch, um Jugendliche an die Kirche heranzuziehen. Die 1948 vom kommunistischen Staat genehmigte Kirchenordnung sah in Paragraf 20, Artikel 5 vor, die Pfarrer hätten „Sorge zu tragen für die sittliche und religiöse Erziehung der Jugend im Rahmen der Evangelischen Kirche A. B. in der Rumänischen Volksrepublik nach ihren Lehren und Überlieferungen.“<sup data-fn="63c9e8cb-79ce-4edf-9470-2bb7c8abcbef" class="fn"><a href="#63c9e8cb-79ce-4edf-9470-2bb7c8abcbef" id="63c9e8cb-79ce-4edf-9470-2bb7c8abcbef-link">13</a></sup> Diesen Artikel führte Müller gegenüber den staatlichen Behörden in der Verteidigung der Bruder- und Schwesternschaften sowie ihre Betreuung durch die Pfarrer an.<sup data-fn="10acf962-409d-4a0b-b1f0-e9d2b9f46f73" class="fn"><a href="#10acf962-409d-4a0b-b1f0-e9d2b9f46f73" id="10acf962-409d-4a0b-b1f0-e9d2b9f46f73-link">14</a></sup></p>



<p>Die von den Pfarrern unterstützte Organisierung der Gemeinschaften in eigenen Strukturen kollidierte mit den von der Kommunistischen Partei ausgegebenen Richtlinien der Eingliederung der deutschen Gemeinschaften in die sozialistische Gesellschaft. In einem „streng geheimen“ und „persönlich, vertraulichen“ Schreiben der Regionsdirektion Stalin<sup data-fn="33afed18-edb8-42b7-928a-e4cf7f9093cb" class="fn"><a href="#33afed18-edb8-42b7-928a-e4cf7f9093cb" id="33afed18-edb8-42b7-928a-e4cf7f9093cb-link">15</a></sup> der Securitate an den Ersten Sekretär des RAP-Komitees<sup data-fn="02172378-b4b9-4ad6-ade7-afb4c9a08417" class="fn"><a href="#02172378-b4b9-4ad6-ade7-afb4c9a08417" id="02172378-b4b9-4ad6-ade7-afb4c9a08417-link">16</a></sup> der Region vom 9. Juni 1956 wird die „nationalistische deutsche“ Tätigkeit dargestellt, die von „feindlichen Elementen“ ausgeübt werde, die zu diesem Zweck die evangelische lutherische Kirche und geheime Literaturkreise benutze.<sup data-fn="f1875ea0-1711-4027-9c85-732484dcebbc" class="fn"><a href="#f1875ea0-1711-4027-9c85-732484dcebbc" id="f1875ea0-1711-4027-9c85-732484dcebbc-link">17</a></sup> Diese „Feststellung“ erfolgte vor dem Ausbruch des Ungarnaufstandes. Nach seiner Niederschlagung wurde die Überwachungen verschärft und es wurden Hinweise für die Inszenierung von politischen Prozessen auch gegen mehrere Personengruppen der deutschen Minderheit gesucht. Die Bruder- und Schwesternschaften zitierte Innenminister Alexandru Drăghici während einer Sitzung mit Direktoren des zentralen Apparates sowie der Regionsdirektionen der Securitate am 2. und 3. Dezember 1957 in den „Richtlinien“: Er nannte als Grund für die „nationalistisch-chauvinistische“ Tätigkeit der deutschen Bevölkerung die lutherischen Pfarrer, die die Jugendlichen in den Bruder- und Schwesternschaften im Geiste des „Nationalismus und Mystizismus“ erzögen.<sup data-fn="73909eb9-a8b0-4906-8388-ba3c1f4a637b" class="fn"><a href="#73909eb9-a8b0-4906-8388-ba3c1f4a637b" id="73909eb9-a8b0-4906-8388-ba3c1f4a637b-link">18</a></sup> Die Bruder- und Schwesternschaften, aber auch die Nachbarschaften sowie die in den Städten bestehenden „Kränzchen“ (Freundschaftskreise von jungen Leuten oder Ehepaaren) wurden mit dem Verdacht behaftet, geheime Organisationen zu sein und standen über die gesamte kommunistische Periode im Fokus der Securitate.<sup data-fn="3b6b746c-0546-4532-a19b-09ec9d43a2aa" class="fn"><a href="#3b6b746c-0546-4532-a19b-09ec9d43a2aa" id="3b6b746c-0546-4532-a19b-09ec9d43a2aa-link">19</a></sup></p>



<p>Um Pfarrer Reich als „nationalistisch-chauvinistisch“ eingestellt und feindlich gesinnt darstellen zu können, sammelten die Securitate-Offiziere und -Mitarbeiter alles Auffindbare von ihm und über ihn. Seine Korrespondenz wurde ohnehin überwacht. Die Personenakten des ACNSAS sind nicht chronologisch angelegt, bei der Mikroverfilmung hatte der diese Handlung durchführende Offizier zudem freie Hand, unwichtig erscheinende Dokumente nicht aufzunehmen, so dass der Eindruck eines wahllos zusammengefügten Sammelsuriums entsteht. In der Akte Reichs sind neben Berichten von Informanten und Securitate-Offizieren sowie Schreiben der staatlichen Behörden viele private Briefe an Verwandte, Amtskollegen, Freunde und Bekannte sowie deren Schreiben an ihn, aber auch an seine Gattin Anni, sehr oft nur in rumänischer Übersetzung, abgeheftet. Die Akte wird mit der Übersetzung eines Adventsbriefes von Otto Reich vom 30. November 1958 eröffnet, der letzte der abgefangenen Briefe trägt das Datum des 23. Juni 1971.<sup data-fn="6762a4e2-84a5-4c87-a25a-a8717c899b5d" class="fn"><a href="#6762a4e2-84a5-4c87-a25a-a8717c899b5d" id="6762a4e2-84a5-4c87-a25a-a8717c899b5d-link">20</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Die Securitate deutet&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Zu dem von und über Pfarrer Reich zusammengetragenen „Material“ – wie die Beweisstücke im Jargon der Securitate genannt wurden – gehört auch ein an „Liebe Soldaten“ gerichteter Rundbrief Reichs zu Pfingsten 1944.<sup data-fn="0cf66ccb-ab5a-41fd-bc6b-64f208e9f864" class="fn"><a href="#0cf66ccb-ab5a-41fd-bc6b-64f208e9f864" id="0cf66ccb-ab5a-41fd-bc6b-64f208e9f864-link">21</a></sup> In der Akte abgeheftet ist das an Lehrer Wilh[elm] Georg nach Hermannstadt gesandte Exemplar des Rundbriefs vom 28. Mai 1944, das vermutlich damals von der Postzensur einbehalten und in späteren Jahren aus- und verwertet worden ist. Der Brief spricht von der Bedeutung von Pfingsten, weist am Schluss jedoch auf die Liebe hin, „die wir in dieser Zeit des Krieges für unser schwer ringendes Volk im Herzen tragen. Wir wollen dienen, kämpfen, opfern &#8230; und dazu brauchen wir G o t t es  Kr a f t !“.<sup data-fn="eb74c42b-d665-45f4-b3d5-62681732e3d9" class="fn"><a href="#eb74c42b-d665-45f4-b3d5-62681732e3d9" id="eb74c42b-d665-45f4-b3d5-62681732e3d9-link">22</a></sup>&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Es war für Sommer 1944 eine moderate Formulierung, die Ende der 1950er-Jahre als Fürsprache für den von Deutschland geführten Krieg interpretiert wurde. In Reichs Akte befindet sich desgleichen der Gemeindebrief aus Tartlau, in dem unter anderem über den Heldengedenktag 1944 berichtet wird, der unter großer Beteiligung der Gemeinde und „der Teilnahme von hier weilenden Einheiten der Deutschen Wehrmacht“ begangen worden war. Der Gemeindebrief schließt mit der Liste der „Kameraden“, „die bisher auf dem Schlachtfeld für Volk u[nd] Vaterland gefallen sind“. Die Formulierungen geben den dem Kriegsgeschehen gegenüber völlig unkritischen Geist und die Stimmung in den deutschen Gemeinschaften in jenen Monaten wieder.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Gleich drei Kopien der rumänischen Übersetzung sowie eine Fotokopie des deutschsprachigen Originals sind von einem Schreiben des „Bezirkskonsistoriums A. B. Stalinstadt“ an das Landeskonsistorium vom 15. Mai 1957 in der mikroverfilmten Akte überliefert. Als „Gegenstand“ gab das Bezirkskonsistorium in seinem Schreiben „Kultusdepartement“ an,<sup data-fn="faa92c42-d1d0-44db-b8c6-0b5ea0fae1dc" class="fn"><a href="#faa92c42-d1d0-44db-b8c6-0b5ea0fae1dc" id="faa92c42-d1d0-44db-b8c6-0b5ea0fae1dc-link">23</a></sup> mitgesandt wurde „zur Erheiterung“ ein „Spottgedicht“, das Pfarrer Otto Reich auf die „Verunreinung“ der deutschen Sprache durch Übernahme von Wörtern aus Fremdsprachen verfasst hatte. Auch werden in dem Schreiben des Bezirkskonsistoriums mehrere Vorschläge gemacht, welcher Begriff statt des „Sprachungeheuers“ „Kultusdepartement“ in der Kirchenverwaltung verwendet werden könnte.<sup data-fn="e0744927-ddf8-4bdf-9843-cee620b4b00e" class="fn"><a href="#e0744927-ddf8-4bdf-9843-cee620b4b00e" id="e0744927-ddf8-4bdf-9843-cee620b4b00e-link">24</a></sup> Im Duktus der Securitate hatte Pfarrer Reich die staatliche Kultusoberbehörde verunglimpft und das Bezirkskonsistorium fand das „heiter“.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Das in Kronstadt (rum. Brașov, ung. Brassó, zwischen 1950 und 1960 Stalinstadt, rum. Orașul Stalin) über Reich gesammelte belastende „Material“ wird im Frühjahr 1958 – nach Reichs Umzug von Tartlau nach Hermannstadt – an die Dienststelle der Securitate des Rayons Hermannstadt gesandt. Begleitet wird es von einem von Oberst Gheorghe Crăciun<sup data-fn="5707b08e-3b2d-4fb4-8c31-eac4dfedc683" class="fn"><a href="#5707b08e-3b2d-4fb4-8c31-eac4dfedc683" id="5707b08e-3b2d-4fb4-8c31-eac4dfedc683-link">25</a></sup>, dem Leiter der Regionsdirektion der Securitate in Stalinstadt, sowie Major Ernest Deitel<sup data-fn="a511ac25-04be-4808-854f-37b80b5d485a" class="fn"><a href="#a511ac25-04be-4808-854f-37b80b5d485a" id="a511ac25-04be-4808-854f-37b80b5d485a-link">26</a></sup>, dem Leiter des für die „Nationalisten“ zuständigen Dienstes II derselben Direktion, gezeichneten Schreiben. In dem mit dem 2. April 1958 datierten Schriftstück ordnen die beiden für ihr grausames Vorgehen berühmt-berüchtigten Offiziere an, Reich „gemäß der Bedeutung, die er darstellt, [von der Securitate] aktiv unter Beobachtung zu stellen“.<sup data-fn="49bb252d-5b3f-4e52-8590-4117039d6f4e" class="fn"><a href="#49bb252d-5b3f-4e52-8590-4117039d6f4e" id="49bb252d-5b3f-4e52-8590-4117039d6f4e-link">27</a></sup> In einem weiteren Begleitschreiben vom 7. April 1958 wird bei der Überstellung weiteren „Materials“ nach Hermannstadt über Reich mitgeteilt: „In der Zeit seines Wohnaufenthaltes im Rayon Zeiden [in dem die Gemeinde Tartlau lag] wurde festgestellt, dass er feindliche Äußerungen [gegen die Staatsmacht] macht.“<sup data-fn="df924708-033e-4faa-8af6-b5412d2e940c" class="fn"><a href="#df924708-033e-4faa-8af6-b5412d2e940c" id="df924708-033e-4faa-8af6-b5412d2e940c-link">28</a></sup></p>



<p>Das Kultusministerium beziehungsweise Kultusdepartement und die Securitate waren seit der zweiten Hälfte der 1950er-Jahre bestrebt, in der EKR eine Opposition gegen Bischof Friedrich Müller aufzubauen, die ihn seines Amtes entheben sollte. Parallel dazu sollten den Machtstrukturen hörige Vertreter in die oberen Kirchengremien gewählt werden, um der Staatsmacht größere Einflussmöglichkeiten auf die Kirchenleitung zu ermöglichen.<sup data-fn="d39875d7-a865-4429-90e4-e11b75b1b3ff" class="fn"><a href="#d39875d7-a865-4429-90e4-e11b75b1b3ff" id="d39875d7-a865-4429-90e4-e11b75b1b3ff-link">29</a></sup> In diesem Kontext wurde stets versucht festzustellen, welcher der Pfarrer zu den Adepten des Bischofs gehört und welcher in eine Opposition gegen ihn herangezogen werden könnte. Neben allgemeinen Informationen über den neuen Kollegen Reich erteilten die Informanten des Hermannstädter Kirchenbezirkes folglich auch zu diesem Punkt Auskunft. So berichtet „Nicodemus“ – laut Aktenlage handelt es sich um Pfarrer Johann Gross<sup data-fn="1be46398-699a-4a6c-a1e4-4ee6c9d352d1" class="fn"><a href="#1be46398-699a-4a6c-a1e4-4ee6c9d352d1" id="1be46398-699a-4a6c-a1e4-4ee6c9d352d1-link">30</a></sup>, den Dechanten des Hermannstädter Bezirks (Dekanats) und dementsprechend der kirchliche Vorgesetzte von Otto Reich – Reich habe in Deutschland studiert. Das war für Pfarrer der EKR vor 1945 üblich gewesen, in der Biografie stellte es jedoch einen Minuspunkt dar, da jeder Kontakt zum „westlichen“ und also „kapitalistischen“ Ausland negativ besetzt war. „Nicodemus“ berichtet ferner, Reich sei ein „freundlicher, fleißiger und hilfsbereiter Pfarrer“ sowie „guter Kollege“, er arbeite mit dem Dechanten und den anderen Kollegen gut zusammen und werde allen helfen, „die wünschen, dass die Kirche ein aktiver Faktor in allen Fragen der Partei und Regierung sein soll“. Der Offizier deutet diese Aussage dahingehend, Reich könne in die „oppositionelle Strömung“ (curent opoziționist) gegen den Bischof herangezogen werden.<sup data-fn="8279e33c-e355-437c-8bee-2195adb386af" class="fn"><a href="#8279e33c-e355-437c-8bee-2195adb386af" id="8279e33c-e355-437c-8bee-2195adb386af-link">31</a></sup> Dem Bericht der Quelle „Popescu Emil“<sup data-fn="9b644fa9-7b4d-48e7-9dd6-d7b49ee36dc4" class="fn"><a href="#9b644fa9-7b4d-48e7-9dd6-d7b49ee36dc4" id="9b644fa9-7b4d-48e7-9dd6-d7b49ee36dc4-link">32</a></sup> zufolge habe Reich „mit den Hitleristen sympathisiert“. Nun erfreue er sich des Vertrauens und Einflusses unter den evangelischen Pfarrern, da er intelligent sei und einen „noblen Charakter“ habe. Er habe viele Kinder,<sup data-fn="c9f700ae-4b80-452e-8c2e-82bcee850fd7" class="fn"><a href="#c9f700ae-4b80-452e-8c2e-82bcee850fd7" id="c9f700ae-4b80-452e-8c2e-82bcee850fd7-link">33</a></sup> weshalb er ein bescheidenes Leben führe. Außereheliche Beziehungen seien keine bekannt, so der Informant. Das Gegenteil wäre für die Securitate eine wichtige Information im Hinblick auf eine Erpressung gewesen. Die Haltung Reichs dem Bischof gegenüber sei neutral, er habe dem Berichtenden jedoch einmal gesagt, der Bischof sei alt und schlafe bei den Pastoralkonferenzen ständig ein, und er sei deswegen der Ansicht, der Bischof solle gegen einen Jüngeren ausgetauscht werden.<sup data-fn="e24f0fb6-68ff-44c8-b908-905a2a921316" class="fn"><a href="#e24f0fb6-68ff-44c8-b908-905a2a921316" id="e24f0fb6-68ff-44c8-b908-905a2a921316-link">34</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Anstehende Wahlen&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In das Visier der Securitate in Hermannstadt gerät Pfarrer Reich insbesondere 1961, als er als potenzieller Kandidat für das Amt des Stadtpfarrers gehandelt wird. Die Jahre der brutalen Willkürakte der Staatsmacht waren zwar vorbei, doch die vor nicht allzu langer Zeit ausgesprochenen Urteile in den politischen Prozessen gegen mehrere Pfarrer der EKR als Disziplinierungsmaßnahme nach dem Ungarnaufstand hatten die Kirchengemeinden und die Geistlichen nicht vergessen. Erwähnt sei an dieser Stelle nur der sogenannte Schwarze-Kirche-Prozess, in dem der Kronstädter Stadtpfarrer Konrad Möckel im Dezember 1958 zum Tode verurteilt worden war (das Urteil wurde in lebenslange Haft umgewandelt),<sup data-fn="09d681df-07ea-426b-8ae0-a3cad750a71d" class="fn"><a href="#09d681df-07ea-426b-8ae0-a3cad750a71d" id="09d681df-07ea-426b-8ae0-a3cad750a71d-link">35</a></sup> sowie die Mitverurteilung zweier Pfarrer – Andreas Birkner<sup data-fn="2ea75358-72a9-4a24-a0db-4efa1ab26320" class="fn"><a href="#2ea75358-72a9-4a24-a0db-4efa1ab26320" id="2ea75358-72a9-4a24-a0db-4efa1ab26320-link">36</a></sup> und Harald Siegmund<sup data-fn="a8be6d1a-cec2-41de-afa5-92a81b3b611b" class="fn"><a href="#a8be6d1a-cec2-41de-afa5-92a81b3b611b" id="a8be6d1a-cec2-41de-afa5-92a81b3b611b-link">37</a></sup> – im sogenannten Schriftstellerprozess.<sup data-fn="a33cdf17-b3f3-4b40-a72c-cc691f42ab6e" class="fn"><a href="#a33cdf17-b3f3-4b40-a72c-cc691f42ab6e" id="a33cdf17-b3f3-4b40-a72c-cc691f42ab6e-link">38</a></sup>&nbsp;</p>



<p>Der amtierende Stadtpfarrer Alfred Herrmann<sup data-fn="062e1989-d6d7-4670-aa61-0c1ccbee29b3" class="fn"><a href="#062e1989-d6d7-4670-aa61-0c1ccbee29b3" id="062e1989-d6d7-4670-aa61-0c1ccbee29b3-link">39</a></sup> hatte auch das Amt des Bischofsvikars inne. Herrmann sollte – so hatten die Pläne von Securitate und Kultusoberbehörde in der ersten Hälfte der 1950er-Jahre gelautet – Bischof Müller aus dem Amt verdrängen. Gelungen ist der Coup jedoch nicht.<sup data-fn="9c993169-ce4c-4769-83aa-c15cfa0a861f" class="fn"><a href="#9c993169-ce4c-4769-83aa-c15cfa0a861f" id="9c993169-ce4c-4769-83aa-c15cfa0a861f-link">40</a></sup> Der Rücktritt des Stadtpfarrers aus dem Amt war im November 1961 erfolgt.<sup data-fn="3b59a5f9-16af-4e76-8e2a-4451f4fafcb1" class="fn"><a href="#3b59a5f9-16af-4e76-8e2a-4451f4fafcb1" id="3b59a5f9-16af-4e76-8e2a-4451f4fafcb1-link">41</a></sup> Herrmann hatte seinen Beschluss, angesichts seines angeschlagenen Gesundheitszustandes in Rente zu gehen, dem Presbyterium der Hermannstädter evangelischen Gemeinde in dessen Sitzung am 1. November 1962 mitgeteilt. In derselben Zusammenkunft beauftragte das Presbyterium Kurator Kurt Schebesch mit dem Kultusbeauftragten von Hermannstadt Gheorghe Moldovan<sup data-fn="d98b42f9-9a6e-4378-8270-a566f2cadcfe" class="fn"><a href="#d98b42f9-9a6e-4378-8270-a566f2cadcfe" id="d98b42f9-9a6e-4378-8270-a566f2cadcfe-link">42</a></sup> in der „Angelegenheit“ der Stellenausschreibung und -besetzung in Kontakt zu treten.<sup data-fn="269895f6-77f3-4bb6-8bf7-46317190348c" class="fn"><a href="#269895f6-77f3-4bb6-8bf7-46317190348c" id="269895f6-77f3-4bb6-8bf7-46317190348c-link">43</a></sup> Die Stadtpfarrerwahlen sollten vor den Bezirkskirchenwahlen (Frühjahr 1962) und den Landeskirchenwahlen (Herbst 1962) erfolgen, um dem neugewählten Stadtpfarrer der größten evangelischen Gemeinde – sie zählte zu jener Zeit fast 17.000 Mitglieder – und zugleich jener im Ort des Bischofssitzes, die Wahl in das Landeskonsistorium und möglicherweise gar zum Bischofsvikar zu ermöglichen. Aus der Sicht der Staatsmacht war es aus diesem Grund äußerst wichtig, eine ihr genehme und „leitbare“ Person in das Amt zu setzen. Bischof Müller und die Gemeinde erhofften das Gegenteil. Am 18. Dezember beschloss das Presbyterium die Ausschreibung des Stadtpfarrerpostens.<sup data-fn="345096b7-234e-4bbb-b6b6-029c063d2b10" class="fn"><a href="#345096b7-234e-4bbb-b6b6-029c063d2b10" id="345096b7-234e-4bbb-b6b6-029c063d2b10-link">44</a></sup> Der „Bewerbungsaufruf“ zur Wiederbesetzung der Stadtpfarrstelle wurde vom Landeskonsistorium am 22. Dezember 1961 ausgestellt, Meldungstermin der Kandidaten war der 23. Januar 1962.<sup data-fn="26aa191d-d926-42fc-b346-092beeadc7f7" class="fn"><a href="#26aa191d-d926-42fc-b346-092beeadc7f7" id="26aa191d-d926-42fc-b346-092beeadc7f7-link">45</a></sup></p>



<p>Securitate und Kultusdepartement bereiteten die Wahl des Nachfolgers von Alfred Herrmann nachweislich seit 1960 vor. Der Kultusbeauftragte der Region Kronstadt, Eugen Duldner,<sup data-fn="196c86f2-6a02-4a65-81f1-f17d8454deac" class="fn"><a href="#196c86f2-6a02-4a65-81f1-f17d8454deac" id="196c86f2-6a02-4a65-81f1-f17d8454deac-link">46</a></sup> und die Securitate hatten Johann Gross für das Amt auserkoren. Dieser war mit Unterstützung der Kultusbehörde 1954 zum Dechanten des Hermannstädter Bezirkes gewählt worden.<sup data-fn="9135456b-ee8f-4363-91c5-4a34994f8d7d" class="fn"><a href="#9135456b-ee8f-4363-91c5-4a34994f8d7d" id="9135456b-ee8f-4363-91c5-4a34994f8d7d-link">47</a></sup> 1960 schlug Duldner – im Einverständnis mit dem Regionsparteikomitee und den Vertretern der Securitate – Gross als Kandidaten für das Bischofsamt vor, weil man mit ihm „gut zusammenarbeiten“ und „durch ihn eine Reihe Reformen und Säuberungen unter dem geistlichen und administrativen Personal durchführen werden kann, wovor er keine Gewissenbisse haben werde“.<sup data-fn="8e7eeff4-bca7-4c65-872b-d020902a5498" class="fn"><a href="#8e7eeff4-bca7-4c65-872b-d020902a5498" id="8e7eeff4-bca7-4c65-872b-d020902a5498-link">48</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Die Kandidaten</h2>



<p>Johann Gross (1904–1975) hatte von 1925 bis 1930 in Wien Theologie studiert und war 1931 zum Pfarrer ordiniert worden. Er war Lehrer und Pfarrer in mehreren Dörfern Siebenbürgens gewesen, bevor er 1940 zum Pfarrer von Talmesch (rum. Tălmaciu, ung. Nagytalmáci) und danach 1946 zu jenem von Hammersdorf (rum. Gușterița, ung. Szenterzsébet, seit den 1940er-Jahren ein Stadtteil von Hermannstadt) gewählt worden war. In einer Charakterisierung aus Kirchenkreisen<sup data-fn="31f1a396-37f8-49eb-9be9-08c43ef6664f" class="fn"><a href="#31f1a396-37f8-49eb-9be9-08c43ef6664f" id="31f1a396-37f8-49eb-9be9-08c43ef6664f-link">49</a></sup> wird mitgeteilt, er sei 1944 als Pfarrer im Generalgouvernement eingesetzt gewesen,<sup data-fn="8da7f507-9346-4829-bb58-012605b99166" class="fn"><a href="#8da7f507-9346-4829-bb58-012605b99166" id="8da7f507-9346-4829-bb58-012605b99166-link">50</a></sup> habe sich aber in der NS-Zeit der Politik ferngehalten und verfüge über gute Beziehungen zu den Kultusbeauftragten.<sup data-fn="b805f7bc-caa7-4577-9782-ff15bb27fc20" class="fn"><a href="#b805f7bc-caa7-4577-9782-ff15bb27fc20" id="b805f7bc-caa7-4577-9782-ff15bb27fc20-link">51</a></sup> „Johann M. Gross, Talmesch“ gehörte allerdings nach der Gründung der Arbeitsgemeinschaft des „Institutes zur Erforschung des jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsche kirchliche Leben“ zu den Unterzeichnern des „Grußes an den Volkgruppenführer“.<sup data-fn="ba7945ce-460a-4b4e-a54f-f7e3b93c27ce" class="fn"><a href="#ba7945ce-460a-4b4e-a54f-f7e3b93c27ce" id="ba7945ce-460a-4b4e-a54f-f7e3b93c27ce-link">52</a></sup> In einem umfassenden Bericht der Securitate Hermannstadt an die Generaldirektion in Bukarest vom 17. August 1951 sind mehrere Zeugenaussagen u. a. von Mitgliedern des Deutschen Antifaschistischen Komitees (DAK)<sup data-fn="23ffd2da-1107-49f2-adaa-a763d224ae1b" class="fn"><a href="#23ffd2da-1107-49f2-adaa-a763d224ae1b" id="23ffd2da-1107-49f2-adaa-a763d224ae1b-link">53</a></sup> zitiert, denen zufolge Gross den DViR-Führern widersprochen und sich als Pfarrer in die Politik nicht eingemischt habe, 1945 der Gewerkschaft beigetreten und 1947 zum Leiter der Pfarrer-Gewerkschaft gewählt worden war. Er nehme aktiv am „Friedenskampf“ teil und habe schon mal einen Gottesdienst von Sonntagvormittag auf -nachmittag verschoben, um eine antifaschistische Versammlung abzuhalten. Auch lehne er keinen Auftrag der RKP-Organe ab.<sup data-fn="74d2cbac-4c6c-4358-88ef-ce76054f7a65" class="fn"><a href="#74d2cbac-4c6c-4358-88ef-ce76054f7a65" id="74d2cbac-4c6c-4358-88ef-ce76054f7a65-link">54</a></sup></p>



<p>Versuchte er seine NS-Vergangenheit durch das Engagement für die neuen Machthaber wettzumachen oder war er ein Karrierist und Opportunist? In seiner Selbstbiografie gibt Gross im Vorfeld der Anwerbung als Informant an, die NS-Volksgruppenführung habe ihn seit 1941 aus dem Pfarramt drängen wollen und er sei nur einen Monat im Generalgouvernement gewesen, da seine Gattin krank gewesen sei und in dem Ort seiner Zuteilung keine deutschsprachigen evangelischen Gemeindeglieder waren.<sup data-fn="00c9cd07-b714-40c3-b1e2-a99168c01f79" class="fn"><a href="#00c9cd07-b714-40c3-b1e2-a99168c01f79" id="00c9cd07-b714-40c3-b1e2-a99168c01f79-link">55</a></sup></p>



<p>Gezielte Informationen über die anstehenden Stadtpfarrer-, Dechanten- und Bischofsvikarswahlen zog die Securitate seit Herbst 1961 ein. Wegen der Erkrankung Alfred Herrmanns hatte die Gemeindevertretung in ihrer Zusammenkunft am 28. Juni 1961 Pfarrer Otto Reich einstimmig zum Stellvertreter des Stadtpfarrers gewählt. Die Hermannstädter evangelische Gemeinde betreuten in jenen Jahren ferner die Pfarrer Johann Roth, Michael Lösch und Günter Henrich.<sup data-fn="f272eb9d-7dc8-4fc9-a40f-68965fed7f79" class="fn"><a href="#f272eb9d-7dc8-4fc9-a40f-68965fed7f79" id="f272eb9d-7dc8-4fc9-a40f-68965fed7f79-link">56</a></sup> In der Akte von Otto Reich sind die Berichte der Informanten „Popescu“<sup data-fn="4858e28e-6676-4d08-a6b9-98782e9fa562" class="fn"><a href="#4858e28e-6676-4d08-a6b9-98782e9fa562" id="4858e28e-6676-4d08-a6b9-98782e9fa562-link">57</a></sup> vom 11. September 1961 sowie „Olteanu“<sup data-fn="3516b86d-76fb-4be6-8ae4-5f843b4a60d3" class="fn"><a href="#3516b86d-76fb-4be6-8ae4-5f843b4a60d3" id="3516b86d-76fb-4be6-8ae4-5f843b4a60d3-link">58</a></sup> vom 27. September 1961 abgeheftet. „Popescu“ erwähnt, dass Bischof Müller Otto Reich gern als Stadtpfarrer sähe, in den Präferenzen des Bischofs stehe an zweiter Stelle Ernst Weingärtner und an dritter Stelle Johann Gross. Diese drei Pfarrer würden auch in Pfarrerkreisen als mögliche Nachfolger im Stadtpfarramt betrachtet, wobei Gross und Weingärtner auch als Kandidaten für die Dechantenwahl in Frage kämen.<sup data-fn="41dcc0bf-4691-4703-9ad2-8e51b94623d5" class="fn"><a href="#41dcc0bf-4691-4703-9ad2-8e51b94623d5" id="41dcc0bf-4691-4703-9ad2-8e51b94623d5-link">59</a></sup> Der Offizier vermerkt in Fortsetzung des Informantenberichtes von „Popescu“, der IM habe sich mit dem Bischof „solidarisiert“, um die Wahl von Gross zum Dechanten und Stadtpfarrer zum Scheitern zu bringen.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Weingärtner war tatsächlich als Kandidat im Gespräch, vermutlich war er jedoch von seinem Führungsoffizier informiert worden, dass Gross der Kandidat der Staatsbehörden sei und er folglich von einer Kandidatur absehen solle. Indem er nun aber mitteilt, dass er in der Gunst des Bischofs vor Gross rangiere, signalisierte er nicht nur seinen Anspruch auf das Amt, sondern vermutlich auch die Intention des Bischofs, die Wahl von Gross zu verhindern. Der Offizier ordnete als Folge dieser Mitteilung an, Maßnahmen zu treffen, um die Aktionen des Bischofs sowohl „durch die Agentur“, das heißt das Netzwerk der Informanten, als auch über die Bevollmächtigten zu konterkarieren.<sup data-fn="aebb6e59-1e70-4315-b813-0438a3becd1a" class="fn"><a href="#aebb6e59-1e70-4315-b813-0438a3becd1a" id="aebb6e59-1e70-4315-b813-0438a3becd1a-link">60</a></sup> „Olteanu“ spricht sich für Gross aus, wohl wissend, dass das Kultusdepartement ihn unterstützt und um diesem nicht zu widersprechen.<sup data-fn="f58fea1d-3c7b-4098-888b-cb746dafeadb" class="fn"><a href="#f58fea1d-3c7b-4098-888b-cb746dafeadb" id="f58fea1d-3c7b-4098-888b-cb746dafeadb-link">61</a></sup></p>



<p>Die am 25. Dezember 1961 erfolgte Verabschiedung von Alfred Herrmann aus dem Stadtpfarramt schildert der Kultusbeauftragte von Hermannstadt, Gheorghe Moldovan, in einem ausführlichen Bericht an die Kultusoberbehörde. Der Großteil seines Berichtes ist allerdings den Spannungen und Vorbereitungen der Wahlen gewidmet.<sup data-fn="ce522d6e-c670-4617-9b3c-b9f9eb492626" class="fn"><a href="#ce522d6e-c670-4617-9b3c-b9f9eb492626" id="ce522d6e-c670-4617-9b3c-b9f9eb492626-link">62</a></sup> Die Regionsdirektion der Securitate in Kronstadt erinnerte das Rayonsamt in Hermannstadt am 30. Dezember 1961 an die im informativen Maßnahmenplan betreffend die EKR geplanten Schritte, um den Agenten „Nikodemus“ in das Amt des Stadtpfarrers zu bringen.<sup data-fn="daa788da-5731-4646-a66e-64d1c7100347" class="fn"><a href="#daa788da-5731-4646-a66e-64d1c7100347" id="daa788da-5731-4646-a66e-64d1c7100347-link">63</a></sup> In seinem Bericht über die Tätigkeit im Jahr 1961 schreibt der Regionsbevollmächtigte Duldner, zu den wichtigsten Problemen gehöre weiterhin die EKR, wo Bischof Müller seine Strategie geändert habe: Bislang habe er die Pfarrer mit „guten Beziehungen zu den Staatsorganen“ auf Distanz gehalten, da er aber die immer entscheidendere Bedeutung des Departements festgestellt habe sowie dessen Einfluss auf einige der Spitzenvertreter der Kirche – und dieser zu seinen Ungunsten erfolge –, sei er nun bemüht, diese Pfarrer auf seine Seite zu bringen. So versuche er nun zu verhindern, dass Gross nach Hermannstadt (ins Stadtpfarramt) gelange und mittels Intrigen sei es ihm gelungen, Weingärtner von Gross zu entfernen.<sup data-fn="906a21ad-2663-4c97-ac0a-06019a622ab2" class="fn"><a href="#906a21ad-2663-4c97-ac0a-06019a622ab2" id="906a21ad-2663-4c97-ac0a-06019a622ab2-link">64</a></sup></p>



<p>Der Kirchenordnung der EKR zufolge wählen die stimmberechtigten Gemeindevertretungsmitglieder den Stadtpfarrer, die Wahl musste jedoch durch das Kultusdepartement bestätigt werden. Um das gewünschte Ergebnis zu erhalten, mussten markante Vertreter der Gemeinde dahingehend beeinflusst werden, als Kandidaten jenen Pfarrer vorzuschlagen, der in der Gunst der staatlichen Behörden stand oder bereit gewesen wäre, eine Konfrontation mit ihnen in Kauf zu nehmen in der Hoffnung, dass seine Wahl, dank dem Vorsprechen des Bischofs bei hohen Staats- und Parteisprechern genehmigt wird.<sup data-fn="ee64e35b-b165-4b2c-89ab-e63dd0c8d7da" class="fn"><a href="#ee64e35b-b165-4b2c-89ab-e63dd0c8d7da" id="ee64e35b-b165-4b2c-89ab-e63dd0c8d7da-link">65</a></sup> „Kultusinspektor“ Moldovan nahm an der Sitzung der Gemeindevertretung am 7. Januar 1962 teil. Ob der Kultusinspektor etwas gesagt hat und falls ja, was, ist nicht protokolliert. In den Protokollen aller Sitzungen teilt der Kurator eingangs mit, diese seien „ordnungsgemäß bei der Miliz angemeldet“ worden (wie das im Falle jeder Versammlung verpflichtend war).<sup data-fn="e6f5f040-911f-455b-8ca8-b5b34ac40f73" class="fn"><a href="#e6f5f040-911f-455b-8ca8-b5b34ac40f73" id="e6f5f040-911f-455b-8ca8-b5b34ac40f73-link">66</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Der Plan der Securitate&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Über seinen Plan betreffend die Wahlvorbereitung erstattet der Rayonsdienst Hermannstadt der Securitate am 15. Januar 1962 Bericht. Das Dokument ist in doppelter Kopie in der Akte Reichs vorhanden. Erwähnt wird darin ein direktes Gespräch zwischen Reich und dem Kultusbevollmächtigten der Region Kronstadt, der den Pfarrer aufgefordert hat, von der Kandidatur abzusehen, da er die Amtsbestätigung nicht erhalten werde. Ein Standpunkt, den auch der Landeskirchenkurator unterstützte, der das Gespräch vermittelt hatte.<sup data-fn="a8ec26fd-c579-4d2d-9cbc-55522594e76d" class="fn"><a href="#a8ec26fd-c579-4d2d-9cbc-55522594e76d" id="a8ec26fd-c579-4d2d-9cbc-55522594e76d-link">67</a></sup> Die Stimmung in der Kirchengemeinde, in der sich Pfarrer Reich großer Beliebtheit erfreute, und die wusste, dass Dechant Gross der Kandidat der Staatsmacht war, widerspiegelt der Informantenbericht der Quelle „Petruc Valer“.<sup data-fn="d129aafb-6f99-4e72-b038-377cd6b608e3" class="fn"><a href="#d129aafb-6f99-4e72-b038-377cd6b608e3" id="d129aafb-6f99-4e72-b038-377cd6b608e3-link">68</a></sup> Wenige Tage zuvor hatte derselbe IM seinem Führungsoffizier über ein Gespräch mit Pfarrer Reich berichtet, der ihm mitgeteilt habe, er fühle sich wegen der Wahlen im Augenmerk der Securitate und der Parteiorgane. Reich habe nicht beabsichtigt, für das Stadtpfarramt zu kandidieren, die Mehrheit der armen Bevölkerung möchte jedoch ihn zum Stadtpfarrer haben, „die Organe“ allerdings wünschten Pfarrer Gross in diesem Amt, so der IM.<sup data-fn="94dae4cb-b16a-41cc-aed2-90c13bfab064" class="fn"><a href="#94dae4cb-b16a-41cc-aed2-90c13bfab064" id="94dae4cb-b16a-41cc-aed2-90c13bfab064-link">69</a></sup></p>



<p>Die Vertreter der Staatsmacht machten wenig Hehl aus ihren Absichten – wohl auch, um die Leute einzuschüchtern. Bischof Müller berichtet in seinen Erinnerungen, dass der Regions- und der Rayonsbevollmächtigte Kurator Schebesch zu einer Unterredung in die Gaststätte des „Römischen Kaisers“ bestellt hatten, in der sie ihm „den Plan der Securitate zwecks Durchführung der Wahl von Gross als Stadtpfarrer mit Einsatz ihrer Beeinflussung der Wahlberechtigten bekanntgaben.“ Schebesch informierte den Bischof und dieser sandte eine Denkschrift an den Generalsekretär des Kultusdepartements Dumitru Dogaru.<sup data-fn="945e2495-c383-477e-893e-017df0741eb1" class="fn"><a href="#945e2495-c383-477e-893e-017df0741eb1" id="945e2495-c383-477e-893e-017df0741eb1-link">70</a></sup> Dogaru entsandte einen Bevollmächtigten aus Bukarest, der mit Kurator Schebesch und den lokalen Behörden den Kompromiss aushandelte, Ernst Weingärtner als Kandidaten vorzuschlagen. Reich habe von der Kandidatur selbst abgesehen.<sup data-fn="a882a21b-5fec-4eab-856a-00c3b612f867" class="fn"><a href="#a882a21b-5fec-4eab-856a-00c3b612f867" id="a882a21b-5fec-4eab-856a-00c3b612f867-link">71</a></sup> </p>



<p>Vermutlich war der auf ihn ausgeübte Druck zu stark gewesen und er nicht gewillt, es auf eine Konfrontation ankommen zu lassen, bei der kaum Aussichten bestanden, sie zu seinen Gunsten zu entscheiden.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dass Otto Reich der Wunschkandidat der Gemeinde und des Bischofs gewesen war, aber „leider nicht von den letztlich ausschlaggebenden Vertretern des Kultusministeriums in Bukarest“, und dass der Bischof zu verhindern versuchte, dass der „wenig interessante Geistliche (Pfarrer aus Hammersdorf)“ mit „rotem, zumindest rötlichem Einschlag“ gewählt werde und dass das „Nein“ aus Bukarest bewirkt habe, dass der ihnen genehme Pfarrer von Großau (rum. Cristian, ung. Keresztenysziget), Ernst Weingärtner, gewählt wurde, bestätigte auch Trude Kast, Bischof Müllers Haushaltsdame, in ihren Erinnerungen.<sup data-fn="dcdcaf24-2e71-4c54-ac60-90c1e46ec6e2" class="fn"><a href="#dcdcaf24-2e71-4c54-ac60-90c1e46ec6e2" id="dcdcaf24-2e71-4c54-ac60-90c1e46ec6e2-link">72</a></sup></p>



<p>Die Stadtpfarrerwahl wird von der Gemeindevertretung in einer Zusammenkunft am 21. Januar 1962 besprochen. In ihr teilt Otto Reich mit, er habe „nach reiflicher Überlegung und vielen schlaflosen Nächten den Entschluss gefasst“, „sich um die Stadtpfarrerstelle nicht zu bewerben“. „Das Wohlergehen der Kirche, die harmonische Zusammenarbeit zwischen der Gemeinde und den höheren Behörden“ seien ihm wichtiger und wertvoller „als jede persönliche Ehrung“. Es schmerze ihn, die Gemeinde zu enttäuschen, aber sie dürfe nicht leiden und er bleibe ja weiterhin ihr Pfarrer. Er schlug als Kandidaten Pfarrer Weingärtner vor. Denselben Vorschlag unterbreitete auch Kurator Schebesch der Gemeindevertretung und sagte, die „Beweggründe“ könne er nicht mitteilen, „es ist aber Ehrensache, mir das Vertrauen zu schenken und keine unangenehmen Vorbedingungen zu schaffen. Was wir tun, geschieht freiwillig und ohne jeden Zwang, oder wir tun es nicht. Die Gemeinde wird einsehen, dass wir das Beste getan haben[,] was man tun konnte.“ Mehrere Mitglieder der Gemeindevertretung sprechen Kurator Schebesch das Vertrauen aus.<sup data-fn="37ff50ad-c902-4816-a948-57279387159a" class="fn"><a href="#37ff50ad-c902-4816-a948-57279387159a" id="37ff50ad-c902-4816-a948-57279387159a-link">73</a></sup>&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ernst Weingärtner wird am 28. Januar 1962 zum Stadtpfarrer gewählt. In den Protokollen der evangelischen Kirchengemeinde befindet sich nur der Vermerk, dass ein Bericht darüber nicht verfasst wurde.<sup data-fn="0eb8965a-4b46-499c-8aee-3e21e0d71653" class="fn"><a href="#0eb8965a-4b46-499c-8aee-3e21e0d71653" id="0eb8965a-4b46-499c-8aee-3e21e0d71653-link">74</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Der gewählte Stadtpfarrer&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Ernst Weingärtner (1918–2001), 1942 bis 1952 Pfarrer in Bulkesch (rum. Bălcaciu, ung. Bolkács) und seither in Großau, wurde 1952 erstmals als IM angeworben.<sup data-fn="6a459571-2a39-4d56-8fcf-2fa86ff50a8e" class="fn"><a href="#6a459571-2a39-4d56-8fcf-2fa86ff50a8e" id="6a459571-2a39-4d56-8fcf-2fa86ff50a8e-link">75</a></sup> In dem Bericht über seine Rekrutierung wird mitgeteilt, er sei zum Treffen mit den Unterlagen über seine Konflikte mit der DViR-Führung der Gemeinde erschienen und habe sich mit der Politik der RKP einverstanden erklärt.<sup data-fn="ee07210e-48d2-435e-9af3-744c3203bcb8" class="fn"><a href="#ee07210e-48d2-435e-9af3-744c3203bcb8" id="ee07210e-48d2-435e-9af3-744c3203bcb8-link">76</a></sup> 1955 wurde er – zwischenzeitlich Pfarrer im Rayon Hermannstadt – von der dortigen Securitate als IM „reaktiviert“. Im Bericht über diesen Vorgang charakterisiert der Offizier ihn als „intelligent und schlau“.<sup data-fn="d5a1256c-71fc-41ca-b69e-978f4866cba1" class="fn"><a href="#d5a1256c-71fc-41ca-b69e-978f4866cba1" id="d5a1256c-71fc-41ca-b69e-978f4866cba1-link">77</a></sup></p>



<p>Über den Ablauf der Stadtpfarrerwahl erfahren wir auch aus Reichs Akte nichts. In ihr ist erst der Bericht des Kultusbevollmächtigten Moldovan von der am 24. März 1962 erfolgten Einführung von Ernst Weingärtner als Stadtpfarrer abgeheftet.<sup data-fn="d4cd8f03-c8ff-483a-9059-0e5dfbd409d0" class="fn"><a href="#d4cd8f03-c8ff-483a-9059-0e5dfbd409d0" id="d4cd8f03-c8ff-483a-9059-0e5dfbd409d0-link">78</a></sup> Pfarrer Otto Reich wird darin nicht mehr erwähnt. Weingärtners Wahl zum Stadtpfarrer von Hermannstadt und sein Transfer aus Großau waren am 20. Februar 1962 durch ein vom Regionsbevollmächtigten Duldner gezeichnetes Schreiben anerkannt beziehungsweise genehmigt worden. Weder der Regionsbevollmächtigte noch der ebenfalls auf der Gästeliste der Einführungsfeier geführte Vertreter des Kultusdepartements waren bei der Feierlichkeit anwesend.<sup data-fn="6715fac5-b63e-4665-bfa5-195cfb2bc6f4" class="fn"><a href="#6715fac5-b63e-4665-bfa5-195cfb2bc6f4" id="6715fac5-b63e-4665-bfa5-195cfb2bc6f4-link">79</a></sup>&nbsp;</p>



<p>In dem mit dem 6. Februar 1962 datierten „Synthesebericht über die Tätigkeit der Bevollmächtigten im Januar 1962“ bezeichnet Duldner die Stadtpfarrerwahl als Problem Nummer 1. Er gibt zu, dass das Departement einige Fehler gemacht habe, die Bischof Müller als Vorwand für die verschiedenen direkten Eingriffe in die Wahlen genutzt habe. Nach Ansicht Duldners seien die „retrograden und feindlichen“ Kräfte in der Kirche immer noch bedeutend. Selbst der Direktor im Kultusministerium Ion Rodeanu habe gesagt, „der heutige Geist der Reaktion in Hermannstadt unterscheidet sich in nichts von jenem von 1938“. Die Wahl von Weingärtner als Kompromiss beurteilt Duldner als „willkommen“. Den Informationen des Departements zufolge sei der Bischof nicht erfreut über diese Wahl, der Vorschlag sei jedoch so unerwartet gewesen, dass er keine Zeit hatte seine Leute in Bewegung zu setzen, um ihm entgegenzuwirken.<sup data-fn="92f825e8-6a89-48f5-9fb0-92c87e30192b" class="fn"><a href="#92f825e8-6a89-48f5-9fb0-92c87e30192b" id="92f825e8-6a89-48f5-9fb0-92c87e30192b-link">80</a></sup> In dem auf den 9. Januar 1962 datierten Tätigkeitsbericht über das Jahr 1961 hatte Duldner die Departementsleitung darauf hingewiesen, dass der Ausgang der Stadtpfarrerwahl in Hermannstadt als „Beweis“ für das Kräfteverhältnis in der EKR betrachtet werden könne: Sollte es dem Bischof gelingen, die Wahl von Dechant Gross zu verhindern, sei das Los der landeskirchlichen Wahlen besiegelt, die dann nach dem Gutdünken des Bischofs stattfinden werden. Werde Gross gewählt, werden sich die Geistlichen um ihn gruppieren; das Ergebnis des Wahlerfolgs sei zurzeit nicht abschätzbar.<sup data-fn="a17ceb4d-bffe-4a07-9570-6dcf998da6ae" class="fn"><a href="#a17ceb4d-bffe-4a07-9570-6dcf998da6ae" id="a17ceb4d-bffe-4a07-9570-6dcf998da6ae-link">81</a></sup>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In der Akte Reichs befindet sich der Bericht des Hermannstädter Bevollmächtigten über die Vorbereitungssitzung der Bezirkskirchenwahlen am 2. März 1962, in der die Kandidatenliste festgelegt und Pfarrer Reich als abwesend gemeldet wurde. Mehrere Pfarrer hatten die Wiederwahl von Johann Gross zum Dechanten vorgeschlagen, einige Pfarrer jedoch empfahlen statt diesem Ernst Weingärtner.<sup data-fn="89ac72a8-49e3-4715-899e-ac59a1bc5fc7" class="fn"><a href="#89ac72a8-49e3-4715-899e-ac59a1bc5fc7" id="89ac72a8-49e3-4715-899e-ac59a1bc5fc7-link">82</a></sup> Aus dem ebenfalls vorhandenen Bericht von Moldovan über die Bezirkskirchenwahlen vom 11. März 1962 geht hervor, dass Weingärtner nicht kandidierte, aber dennoch 32 Stimmen erhielt, während Gross mit Stimmenmehrheit (82 Stimmen) wiedergewählt wurde.<sup data-fn="73c4fb61-04f0-40bf-a274-c99fa4944e3d" class="fn"><a href="#73c4fb61-04f0-40bf-a274-c99fa4944e3d" id="73c4fb61-04f0-40bf-a274-c99fa4944e3d-link">83</a></sup></p>



<p>War Weingärtner nahegelegt worden, von einer Kandidatur abzusehen, und war dieser Verzicht Teil des ausgehandelten Kompromisses gewesen? Musste Gross Dechant bleiben, damit weder er noch die ihn unterstützenden Vertreter der Staatsmacht ihr Ansehen verlieren? Bischof Friedrich Müller konnte es im November 1962 verhindern, dass einer der beiden zum Bischofsvikar gewählt wurde, wie es Securitate und lokale Kultusbeauftragte beabsichtigt hatten.<sup data-fn="fd8af975-1d46-4b99-8590-e41fe994851c" class="fn"><a href="#fd8af975-1d46-4b99-8590-e41fe994851c" id="fd8af975-1d46-4b99-8590-e41fe994851c-link">84</a></sup></p>



<p>In Reichs Akte ist fernerhin die mit dem 18. April 1962 datierte ausführliche Berichterstattung über die Maßnahmen abgeheftet, die zur Umsetzung der im „Arbeitsplan“ betreffend die evangelisch-lutherische Glaubensgemeinschaft vorgesehenen Aufgaben getroffen wurden, sowie die dadurch erhaltenen Ergebnisse des Rayonsdienstes Hermannstadt der Securitate. Laut Ansicht der Offiziere waren so die Prämissen geschaffen für die „positive Orientierung“ der Kultusleitung in der von ihnen gewünschten Richtung. Im Klartext bedeutet dies: infolge der Stadtpfarrer- und der Bezirkskirchenwahlen war eine Instrumentalisierung der Repräsentanten der Glaubensgemeinschaft insgesamt sowie hinsichtlich der Landeskirchenwahlen möglich.<sup data-fn="5a8eacdc-c3c4-4b26-8ad2-a813be7b6853" class="fn"><a href="#5a8eacdc-c3c4-4b26-8ad2-a813be7b6853" id="5a8eacdc-c3c4-4b26-8ad2-a813be7b6853-link">85</a></sup></p>



<p>Auch Weingärtners Führungsoffizier zeigte sich nach dessen Einsetzung als Stadtpfarrer zufrieden mit der Kooperation. 1963 stellt er jedoch – auch infolge der Wahl des Stadtpfarrers ins Landeskonsistorium, von wo Informationen erwartet wurden – eine „Reserviertheit“ in der Informantentätigkeit fest. 1964 wurde Weingärtner wegen „bewusster und absichtlicher Reserviertheit und Unehrlichkeit“ aus dem Informantennetz ausgeschlossen. Er hatte es u. a. versäumt, von Kontakten zu einem Vertreter der Landsmannschaft der Siebenbürger Sachsen in Deutschland zu berichten.<sup data-fn="75c062d0-f991-4d96-b7c8-40063b09fbb1" class="fn"><a href="#75c062d0-f991-4d96-b7c8-40063b09fbb1" id="75c062d0-f991-4d96-b7c8-40063b09fbb1-link">86</a></sup> In demselben Jahr wurde auch Johann Gross aus dem Mitarbeiterverhältnis entlassen. Er war infolge der ihm versprochenen und dann nicht erfolgten Wahl ins Landeskonsistorium und zum Bischofsvikar enttäuscht und ebenfalls auf Distanz zu den Vertretern der Staatsmacht gegangen. Aus Protest stellte er einen Ausreiseantrag.<sup data-fn="4892ba00-acbf-4cb4-9d28-8558e0b97b90" class="fn"><a href="#4892ba00-acbf-4cb4-9d28-8558e0b97b90" id="4892ba00-acbf-4cb4-9d28-8558e0b97b90-link">87</a></sup> Weingärtner wurde auf Grund der Kontakte zur Landsmannschaft und seiner Einstellung zugunsten der Ausreise – die auch zum Konflikt mit Bischof Müller geführt hatten –<sup data-fn="8233a26c-1944-4d11-b8aa-a40eb9293b73" class="fn"><a href="#8233a26c-1944-4d11-b8aa-a40eb9293b73" id="8233a26c-1944-4d11-b8aa-a40eb9293b73-link">88</a></sup> eine Überwachungs- und 1977 sodann eine informative Verfolgungsakte eröffnet, die jeweils mit seiner erneuten Anwerbung als Informant geschlossen wurden.<sup data-fn="05b3d73c-ee87-490d-a63f-1c7cc7077814" class="fn"><a href="#05b3d73c-ee87-490d-a63f-1c7cc7077814" id="05b3d73c-ee87-490d-a63f-1c7cc7077814-link">89</a></sup> Der offenbar eitle und die Konventionen der Zusammenarbeit mit dem Presbyterium überschreitende Weingärtner geriet sehr bald mit diesem und Kurator Schebesch in Konflikt und wurde 1971 aus disziplinarischen Gründen nach Großau rückversetzt.<sup data-fn="fba3995b-ddf9-48ff-994d-e3d4bfbb93db" class="fn"><a href="#fba3995b-ddf9-48ff-994d-e3d4bfbb93db" id="fba3995b-ddf9-48ff-994d-e3d4bfbb93db-link">90</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Reich bleibt im Visier</h2>



<p>Was Pfarrer Otto Reich angeht, so wird er auch nach der Stadtpfarrerwahl weiter durch die Securitate beobachtet. Mit dem 9. September 1963 ist der „Beschluss, in Evidenz aufgenommen zu werden“<sup data-fn="95293281-ce11-4012-a8ec-959e89cc5835" class="fn"><a href="#95293281-ce11-4012-a8ec-959e89cc5835" id="95293281-ce11-4012-a8ec-959e89cc5835-link">91</a></sup> der Regionsdirektion der Securitate Kronstadt datiert – also die Entscheidung, die Überwachung Reichs fortzuführen. Als Motiv hierfür wird in dem entsprechenden Vordruck in der Rubrik „politische Tätigkeit vor dem 23. August 1944“ der Studienaufenthalt in Deutschland, der Einsatz an der Ostfront als Pfarrer und als ebensolcher sein Wirken in der „faschistischen Organisation“ angegeben.<sup data-fn="6f400e84-80b7-4819-8972-710d1844bbc5" class="fn"><a href="#6f400e84-80b7-4819-8972-710d1844bbc5" id="6f400e84-80b7-4819-8972-710d1844bbc5-link">92</a></sup> In der Rubrik „politische Tätigkeit nach dem 23. August 1944“ wird angeführt, er sei „aktiver Militant der evangelisch-lutherischen Glaubensgemeinschaft, fanatisches<sup data-fn="15f971f7-53d4-4608-96ab-8df3892aad3c" class="fn"><a href="#15f971f7-53d4-4608-96ab-8df3892aad3c" id="15f971f7-53d4-4608-96ab-8df3892aad3c-link">93</a></sup> Element, Vertrauensperson von Bischof Müller, unterhält Verbindungen zum Ausland“.<sup data-fn="04195315-a996-4cea-a3ca-9da52f06ecd6" class="fn"><a href="#04195315-a996-4cea-a3ca-9da52f06ecd6" id="04195315-a996-4cea-a3ca-9da52f06ecd6-link">94</a></sup> Derselbe Offizier (Vasile Machedon)<sup data-fn="56d24432-7fb2-460f-8b03-2f30b0533db1" class="fn"><a href="#56d24432-7fb2-460f-8b03-2f30b0533db1" id="56d24432-7fb2-460f-8b03-2f30b0533db1-link">95</a></sup> hatte bei Johann Gross als Motiv seiner Registrierung ebenfalls die Auslandsstudien, aber auch den Einsatz im Generalgouvernement angeführt, über seine Tätigkeit nach dem 23. August 1944 jedoch nur „aktiver Militant der evangelisch-lutherischen Glaubensgemeinschaft A. B.“ eingetragen.<sup data-fn="8c34a3ac-30c8-45be-9091-22a3cec9771a" class="fn"><a href="#8c34a3ac-30c8-45be-9091-22a3cec9771a" id="8c34a3ac-30c8-45be-9091-22a3cec9771a-link">96</a></sup> Eine neuerliche Überprüfung Reichs durch die Securitate erfolgte 1965, auf Grund ihrer wird der Vorschlag gemacht, ihn weiterhin „aktiv in der operativen Basis“ – das heißt im allgemeinen Beobachtungsvorgang der evangelischen Gemeinschaft – zu überwachen.<sup data-fn="6b88f032-3ab5-420a-8e91-26612d913ec6" class="fn"><a href="#6b88f032-3ab5-420a-8e91-26612d913ec6" id="6b88f032-3ab5-420a-8e91-26612d913ec6-link">97</a></sup> Er bleibt bis zu seiner Verrentung 1971 Stadtprediger in Hermannstadt und bei den Gemeindemitgliedern sowie Pfarrerkollegen sehr beliebt.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In Kapitel VII, Artikel 84 der damals gültigen Verfassung Rumäniens von 1952 war verankert: „Die Glaubensgemeinschaften sind frei sich zu organisieren und ihre Tätigkeit auszuüben.“ Ein Beispiel für diese „Freiheit“ ist die Stadtpfarrerwahl 1962 in Hermannstadt. Sie beweist, wie sehr die Kirchengremien dem Diktat der Machtstrukturen ausgesetzt waren. Bei der Wahl fiel sowohl der Wunschkandidat der Gemeinde und des Bischofs als auch jener der Machtstrukturen durch. Gewählt wurde weder Pfarrer Otto Reich, der sich einer Instrumentalisierung verweigerte, noch der zur Mitarbeit gewillte Pfarrer Johann Gross. Aufgrund eines Kompromisses erfolgte die Wahl von Pfarrer Ernst Weingärtner. Otto Reich war letztlich ein Opfer der Intrigen von Kultusbeauftragten und Securitate im Hinblick auf die Wahl des Bischofsvikars und ihren Bemühungen, mehr Einfluss auf die Leitung der Evangelischen Kirche A. B. in Rumänien zu haben.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Dokumente</h2>



<p><strong>Dokument 1:</strong> 2. April 1958: Begleitschreiben der Regionsdirektion der Securitate Stalin an die Dienstelle des Rayons Hermannstadt bei dem Übersenden der Unterlagen zu Otto Reich&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Dokument 2:</strong> 27. September 1961: Bericht des Informanten „Olteanu“ betreffend die anstehenden Stadtpfarrerwahlen&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Dokument 3:</strong> 25. Dezember 1962: Bericht des Kultusbevollmächtigten des Rayons Hermannstadt, Gheorghe Moldovan, über die Verabschiedungsfeier von Bischofsvikar Alfred Herrmann und die sorgenvollen Erwägungen in der evangelischen Gemeinschaft&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Dokument 4: </strong>30. Dezember 1961: Erinnerungsschreiben der Regionsdirektion Kronstadt der Securitate an das Rayonsamt Hermannstadt betreffend die vorgesehenen Maßnahmen, um „Nikodemus“ in das Amt des Stadtpfarrer zu bringen&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Dokument 5:</strong> 15. Januar 1962: Bericht des Rayonsdienstes Hermannstadt der Securitate über die Vorbereitung der Wahl des Stadtpfarrers und Bischofsvikars&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Dokument 6:</strong> 24. Januar 1962: Bericht des Informanten „Petruc Valer“ über die Stimmung in der evangelischen Gemeinde vor den Stadtpfarrerwahlen&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Dokument 7:</strong> 18. April 1962: Bericht des Rayonsdienstes Hermannstadt der Securitate an die Regionsdirektion Kronstadt betreffend die im Arbeitsplan im Bereich „Evangelisch lutherische deutsche Glaubensgemeinschaft“ vorgesehenen Maßnahmen und deren Umsetzung&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Dokument 8:</strong> 25. Oktober 1965: Mitteilung des Rayonsdienstes der Securitate Hermannstadt an die Regionsdirektion Kronstadt, Pfarrer Otto Reich weiterhin in der operativen Datenbasis zu führen&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Editorische Hinweise: </strong>Die hier edierten Dokumente wurden von der Verfasserin dieses Beitrags ins Deutsche übersetzt. Die Übersetzung lehnt sich bewusst an die rumänische Terminologie an, um möglichen Lesern der CNSAS-Akten das Lesen zu erleichtern. Die Bedeutung einiger Abkürzungen der Securitate in der Anrede oder am Ende der Schriftstücke (zum Beispiel „s.c.“) konnte nicht geklärt werden. Sie wurden deshalb so belassen. Bei Datumsangaben wurde stets die im Original verwendete arabische oder römische Ziffer beibehalten. Da nicht alle genannten Securitate-Offiziere eindeutig zu identifizieren waren, fehlen in manchen Fällen biografische Angaben.&nbsp;</p>



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<p><strong>Hannelore Baier</strong> ist Journalistin, Autorin von Beiträgen und Herausgeberin von Dokumenten zur Zeitgeschichte der deutschen Minderheit in Rumänien.&nbsp;Letzte Buchveröffentlichung als Herausgeberin: Überwachung und Infiltration. Die Evangelische Kirche A. B. in Rumänien unter kommunistischer Herrschaft (1945–1969). Dokumentation, als Band 143 der Veröffentlichungen des Instituts&nbsp;für deutsche Kultur und Geschichte Südosteuropas an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (IKGS), Regensburg 2022, erschienen.&nbsp;</p>


<ol class="wp-block-footnotes"><li id="86dd9c9e-7a40-402a-9ccf-f17a319543e0">MFI steht für „microfilmat fond informativ“, das heißt aus dem Informativfonds mikroverfilmt, SB für Sibiu beziehungsweise der Landkreis Sibiu/Hermannstadt, aus dem sie stammt. Die Mikroverfilmung der Akte „Reich Otto-Carol“ erfolgte laut Stempel auf dem Aktendeckel am 8.3.1975. <a href="#86dd9c9e-7a40-402a-9ccf-f17a319543e0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 1 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1faa3b57-01e8-4044-8f59-25016f7ac1a1">Größere evangelische Gemeinschaften wurden zumeist in den Städten neben dem Stadtpfarrer von einem oder mehreren sogenannten „Stadtpredigern“ betreut.  <a href="#1faa3b57-01e8-4044-8f59-25016f7ac1a1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 2 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="07c7cdae-2f82-40d9-83be-5cc4f6bb142c">Zur Problematik der Einmischung und Kontrolle der EKR vgl. auch Vasile Valentin: Supraveghere, imixtiune și control asupra Bisericii Evanghelice CA în primele două decenii postbelice. In: Caietele CNSAS 1–2 (2016), S. 9–42, in deutscher Zusammenfassung Vasile Valentin: Überwachung und Kontrolle der Evangelischen Kirche A. B. in Rumänien in den ersten beiden Nachkriegsjahrzehnten. In: Zeitschrift für Siebenbürgische Landeskunde (fortan ZfSL) 41 (2018), S. 171–188; Hannelore Baier (Hg.): Überwachung und Infiltration. Die Evangelische Kirche A. B. in Rumänien unter kommunistischer Herrschaft (1945–1969). Dokumentation. Regensburg 2022.  <a href="#07c7cdae-2f82-40d9-83be-5cc4f6bb142c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 3 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="277f9bdc-bfaa-4f81-ab96-7560c6dd6cf6">In seinen Dichtungen nimmt er bestimmte Typen und Verhaltensweisen seiner Landsleute aufs Korn, seine Theaterstücke wurden von zahlreichen Schul- und Laientruppen aufgeführt. <a href="#277f9bdc-bfaa-4f81-ab96-7560c6dd6cf6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 4 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5ce996d1-9582-4a10-ac93-2b344edd51bc">Auf Grund von Dekret Nr. 253/1955 konnten in den Westen Europas geflüchtete oder infolge des Kriegsgeschehens dort verbliebene rumänische Staatsbürger ins Land zurückkehren, ohne – wie bis dahin – Gefängnisstrafen zu befürchten. Die Möglichkeit dieser Familienzusammenführung nutzten auch einige Rumäniendeutsche. <a href="#5ce996d1-9582-4a10-ac93-2b344edd51bc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 5 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c0b0b53b-7bd5-4523-a850-c8e2fbb7ed44">Arhivele Consiliului Național pentru Studierea Arhivelor Securității (Archive des Nationalen Rats für die Erforschung der Archive der Securitate [fortan ACNSAS]), MFI 9893 SB, S. 5. Die Note des Offiziers mit den Reich belastenden Aussagen trägt das Datum des 4.1.1956.    <a href="#c0b0b53b-7bd5-4523-a850-c8e2fbb7ed44-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 6 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9537bdfd-f96b-45e6-a6a8-e67c6233e03c">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 7 sowie S. 59. <a href="#9537bdfd-f96b-45e6-a6a8-e67c6233e03c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 7 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="943f4731-8ed7-4ac1-99db-94409c937781">Ebenda, S. 6. <a href="#943f4731-8ed7-4ac1-99db-94409c937781-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 8 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9ba15ae6-5539-4fe1-8ae6-bc9ee91d337e">Die Deutsche Volksgruppe in Rumänien (DViR) wurde aufgrund des Dekretgesetzes Nr. 388420.11. 1940 zur juristischen Person öffentlichen Rechts erklärt. Ihr „nationaler Willensträger“ war die am 9.11.1940 gegründete Nationalsozialistische Arbeiterpartei der Deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien.  <a href="#9ba15ae6-5539-4fe1-8ae6-bc9ee91d337e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 9 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3578ab91-d995-42d2-8e45-36a5477d089d">Aus der umfangreichen Literatur zur Deportation von rund 70.000 Rumäniendeutschen im Januar 1945 seien hier nur erwähnt: Georg Weber, Renate Weber-Schlenther, Armin Nassehi, Oliver Sill, Georg Kneer: Die Deportation von Siebenbürger Sachsen in die Sowjetunion 1945–1949, 3 Bände. Köln, Weimar, Wien 1996; Ilie Schipor: Deportarea în fosta URSS a etnicilor germani din România. Sibiu 2019; in deutscher Übersetzung: Die Deportation von Rumäniendeutschen in die UdSSR Sibiu 2023/Hermannstadt.      <a href="#3578ab91-d995-42d2-8e45-36a5477d089d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 10 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="077574c2-81ff-4ee7-89cc-87857764fa3b">Vgl. Hannelore Baier: Die Rechtsstellung der Deutschen in Rumänien 1944–1952 im Lichte neuer Archivforschung. In: Forschungen zur Volks- und Landeskunde 48 (2005), S. 87–99; dies.: Die Deutschen Rumäniens als Objekt staatlicher Willkür – oder Kontinuitäten trotz Diskontinuität. In: Zugänge 41 (2013), S. 105–123.   <a href="#077574c2-81ff-4ee7-89cc-87857764fa3b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 11 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="70850f96-45dd-4392-b591-c40b19d2af24">Die kulturellen Rechte wurden im Sinne der Stalinschen Nationalitätenpolitik gewährt; vgl. Hannelore Baier: Die deutsche Minderheit in Rumänien 1953–1959, in: Rudolf Gräf, Gerald Volkmer (Hgg.): Zwischen Tauwetter und Neostalinismus. Deutsche und andere Minderheiten in Ostmittel- und Südosteuropa 1953–1964. München 2011, S. 107–117.  <a href="#70850f96-45dd-4392-b591-c40b19d2af24-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 12 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="63c9e8cb-79ce-4edf-9470-2bb7c8abcbef">Die Kirchenordnung der EKR 1948 im Zentralarchiv der Evangelischen Kirche A. B. in Rumänien (Hermannstadt) (ZAEKR). <a href="#63c9e8cb-79ce-4edf-9470-2bb7c8abcbef-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 13 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="10acf962-409d-4a0b-b1f0-e9d2b9f46f73">Zum Beispiel in einem Schreiben an das Bezirkskonsistorium Mediasch, vgl. ACNSAS, fond documentar, Dossier 1837. Band 2, S. 136; das Schreiben wurde wiederholt in Berichten der Securitate als Beweis für die „feindliche“ Einstellung Müllers zitiert, vgl. ebenda, S. 181–192, Dossier 1852. Band 7, S. 529, S. 559–563.  <a href="#10acf962-409d-4a0b-b1f0-e9d2b9f46f73-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 14 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="33afed18-edb8-42b7-928a-e4cf7f9093cb">Kronstadt/Brașov trug zwischen 1950–1960 offiziell den Namen Stalinstadt/Orașul Stalin und die Verwaltungsregion hieß „Stalin“. <a href="#33afed18-edb8-42b7-928a-e4cf7f9093cb-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 15 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="02172378-b4b9-4ad6-ade7-afb4c9a08417">Nach der Zwangsvereinigung der Sozialdemokratischen mit der Kommunistischen Partei 1948, trug die Rumänische Kommunistische Partei (RKP) bis 1965 die Bezeichnung Rumänische Arbeiterpartei (RAP). <a href="#02172378-b4b9-4ad6-ade7-afb4c9a08417-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 16 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f1875ea0-1711-4027-9c85-732484dcebbc">Der 16 Seiten lange und von Gheorghe Crăciun unterzeichnete Bericht in ACNSAS, fond documentar, Dossier 1861. Band 1, S. 47–62.  <a href="#f1875ea0-1711-4027-9c85-732484dcebbc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 17 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="73909eb9-a8b0-4906-8388-ba3c1f4a637b">Drăghici spricht von den „religiösen“ Organisationen „Brüderschaft“ (sic!) und „Schwesterschaft“, vgl. Florica Dobre (Hg.): Securitatea. Structuri–cadre, obiective și metode [Die Securitate. Strukturen – Kader, Ziele und Methoden]. Bd. I: 1948–1967. București 2006, S. 427–462, hier: S. 432; vgl. desgleichen Hannelore Baier: Die Rumäniendeutschen im Visier der Securitate. In: Corneliu Pintilescu (Hg.): In honorem Vasile Ciobanu: Studii privind minoritatea germană din România în secolul XX / In honorem Vasile Ciobanu: Studien über die Rumäniendeutschen im 20. Jahrhundert. Sibiu 2017. S. 296f.  <a href="#73909eb9-a8b0-4906-8388-ba3c1f4a637b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 18 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3b6b746c-0546-4532-a19b-09ec9d43a2aa">ACNSAS, fond documentar, Dossier 1837. Band 1, S. 3f., S. 29, S. 48f.; Band 2, S. 424, S. 438–466; Dossier 1852. Band 7, S. 529, S. 545–553, S. 559–563. <a href="#3b6b746c-0546-4532-a19b-09ec9d43a2aa-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 19 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6762a4e2-84a5-4c87-a25a-a8717c899b5d">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 1f. bzw. 217. <a href="#6762a4e2-84a5-4c87-a25a-a8717c899b5d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 20 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0cf66ccb-ab5a-41fd-bc6b-64f208e9f864">ACNSAS, MFI 9883 SB, S. 58.  <a href="#0cf66ccb-ab5a-41fd-bc6b-64f208e9f864-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 21 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="eb74c42b-d665-45f4-b3d5-62681732e3d9">Ebenda. Hervorhebung im Original. <a href="#eb74c42b-d665-45f4-b3d5-62681732e3d9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 22 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="faa92c42-d1d0-44db-b8c6-0b5ea0fae1dc">Durch den Ministerratsbeschluss Nr. 435 vom 21.3.1957 war das Kultusministerium zum Kultusdepartement und als solches zu einem dem Ministerrat beigeordneten Departement (de pe lângă Consiliul de Miniștri) unter der Leitung eines Generalsekretärs herabgestuft worden.   <a href="#faa92c42-d1d0-44db-b8c6-0b5ea0fae1dc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 23 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e0744927-ddf8-4bdf-9843-cee620b4b00e">ACNSAS, MFI 9883, S. 34–45, das Begleitschreiben des Regionsinspektorats Kronstadt an die Rayonsdienstelle der Securitate Hermannstadt trägt das Datum 17.VI.1960 (ebenda, S. 46).   <a href="#e0744927-ddf8-4bdf-9843-cee620b4b00e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 24 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5707b08e-3b2d-4fb4-8c31-eac4dfedc683">Gheorghe Crăciun (1913–2001), Leiter der Securitate in den Regionen Hermannstadt (1948–1951) und Kronstadt (1954–1958), Kommandant des Gefängnisses Aiud (1958–1964), Führungsposten in der Direktion Inlandsüberwachung (1964–1969); vgl. Cristina Anisescu: Compulsie la repetiție. In: Silviu B. Moldovan (Hg.): Arhivele Securităţii, Bd. 2. București 2006, S. 386–415. <a href="#5707b08e-3b2d-4fb4-8c31-eac4dfedc683-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 25 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a511ac25-04be-4808-854f-37b80b5d485a">Ernest Deitel (1927–?), Offizier der Regionsdirektion Banat der Securitate (1953–1955), Leiter von Dienst 3 (1955–1957) und sodann Dienst 2 (1957–1960) der Regionsdirektion Stalin, 1975 in die USA emigriert. <a href="#a511ac25-04be-4808-854f-37b80b5d485a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 26 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="49bb252d-5b3f-4e52-8590-4117039d6f4e">ACNSAS, MF 9893 SB, S. 4. Übersetzung als Dokument Nr. 1.  <a href="#49bb252d-5b3f-4e52-8590-4117039d6f4e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 27 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="df924708-033e-4faa-8af6-b5412d2e940c">Ebenda, S. 32. Dieses Begleitschreiben ist von Gheorghe Crăciun und „Dienstleiter Major Maier Lazăr“ unterzeichnet. <a href="#df924708-033e-4faa-8af6-b5412d2e940c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 28 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d39875d7-a865-4429-90e4-e11b75b1b3ff">Vgl. Baier: Überwachung und Infiltration. S. 94–130. <a href="#d39875d7-a865-4429-90e4-e11b75b1b3ff-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 29 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1be46398-699a-4a6c-a1e4-4ee6c9d352d1">Johann Michael Gross (1904–1975), Dechant des Hermannstädter Kirchenbezirks (1954–1968), wurde „stufenweise“ zur Mitarbeit herangezogen und 1960 angeworben (ACNSAS, MI 2785 SB, S. 2–4, S. 11, S. 22). In der Mitarbeitsverpflichtung erklärte er sich bereit, schriftliche Berichte mit dem Decknamen „Nikodemus“ [wird auch als „Nicodemus“ geführt] zu zeichnen (MI 2785 SB, S. 11).  <a href="#1be46398-699a-4a6c-a1e4-4ee6c9d352d1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 30 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8279e33c-e355-437c-8bee-2195adb386af">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 24. Der Informantenbericht von „Nicodemus“ vom 24.3.1960 ist von dem für die EKR zuständigen Offizier Ioan Olariu verfasst und schließt mit einer schlussfolgernden Note des „Büros“.  <a href="#8279e33c-e355-437c-8bee-2195adb386af-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 31 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9b644fa9-7b4d-48e7-9dd6-d7b49ee36dc4"> „Popescu Emil“ war der Decknamen von Pfarrer Ernst Weingärtner (1918–2001), Pfarrer in Großau (1952–1961), Stadtpfarrer von Hermannstadt (1962–1971), 1952 erstmals und danach mehrmals angeworben worden, vgl. ACNSAS, MR 2168 SB, S. 72 und Anmerkungen 74 sowie 76. <a href="#9b644fa9-7b4d-48e7-9dd6-d7b49ee36dc4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 32 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c9f700ae-4b80-452e-8c2e-82bcee850fd7">Otto Reich hatte fünf Kinder. <a href="#c9f700ae-4b80-452e-8c2e-82bcee850fd7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 33 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e24f0fb6-68ff-44c8-b908-905a2a921316">ACNSAS, MF 9893 SB, S. 57. Der Informantenbericht ist „Popescu Emil“ unterzeichnet, verfasst aber wurde der mit dem 2.11.1960 datierte Bericht von Hauptmann Munteanu Ilie, vermutlich auf Grund eines Berichts der „Quelle“ „Popescu Emil“.  <a href="#e24f0fb6-68ff-44c8-b908-905a2a921316-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 34 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="09d681df-07ea-426b-8ae0-a3cad750a71d">Konrad Möckel (1892–1965), Stadtpfarrer von Kronstadt (1933–1958). Zum Prozess vgl. Andreas Möckel: Umkämpfte Volkskirche. Leben und Wirken des evangelisch-sächsischen Pfarrers Konrad Möckel (1892–1965). Köln, Weimar, Wien 2011, S. 296–322; Corneliu Pintilescu: Procesul Biserica Neagră 1958 [Der Schwarze-Kirche-Prozess]. Kronstadt, Heidelberg 2008, S. 43–130; Karl-Heinz Brenndörfer, Thomas Șindilariu (Hgg.): Der Schwarze-Kirche-Prozess 1957/1958. Erlebnisberichte und Dokumentation. Kronstadt, Heidelberg 2011, S. 32–97.  <a href="#09d681df-07ea-426b-8ae0-a3cad750a71d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 35 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="2ea75358-72a9-4a24-a0db-4efa1ab26320">Andreas Birkner (1911–1998), Schriftsteller, Lehrer und Pfarrer. Haftentlassung 1964, Ausreise in die Bundesrepublik (1966).  <a href="#2ea75358-72a9-4a24-a0db-4efa1ab26320-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 36 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a8be6d1a-cec2-41de-afa5-92a81b3b611b">Harald Siegmund (1930–2012), Schriftsteller und Pfarrer in Batiz (1955–1958), nach der Haftentlassung 1962 Gelegenheitsarbeiter, nach seiner Rehabilitierung Dramaturg am Deutschen Staatstheater Temeswar (1969–1972).  <a href="#a8be6d1a-cec2-41de-afa5-92a81b3b611b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 37 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a33cdf17-b3f3-4b40-a72c-cc691f42ab6e">Vgl. zu dieser Problematik Peter Motzan, Stefan Sienerth (Hgg.): Worte als Gefahr und Gefährdung. Fünf deutsche Schriftsteller vor Gericht. München 1993, S. 63, S. 171–176, S. 208–216; Michaela Nowotnick: Die Unentrinnbarkeit der Biographie. Der Roman „Rote Handschuhe“ von Eginald Schlattner als Fallstudie zur rumäniendeutschen Literatur. Köln, Weimar, Wien 2016, S. 94–113; Mihnea Berindei, Dorin Dobrincu, Armand Goșu (Hgg.): Istoria comunismului din România. Documente. Perioada Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej (1945–1965) [Die Geschichte des Kommunismus in Rumänien. Dokumente aus der Periode Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej (1945–1965)]. București 2009, S. 651–665.  <a href="#a33cdf17-b3f3-4b40-a72c-cc691f42ab6e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 38 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="062e1989-d6d7-4670-aa61-0c1ccbee29b3">Alfred Herrmann (1888–1962), Stadtprediger in Kronstadt-Bartholomae (1924–1932), Stadtpfarrer von Czernowitz (1932–1937), Bukarest (1937–1946) und Hermannstadt (1946–1961), Dechant des Hermannstädter Bezirks (1948–1961), Bischofsvikar (1954–1961).   <a href="#062e1989-d6d7-4670-aa61-0c1ccbee29b3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 39 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9c993169-ce4c-4769-83aa-c15cfa0a861f">Hermann war 1951 „aufgrund seiner Überzeugung“ als IM mit dem Decknamen „Prietenul“ angeworben worden (vgl. ACNSAS, Dossier MR 2534 SB, S. 2; Thomas Șindilariu: Die Bestrebungen zur Beseitigung von Bischof Friedrich Müller – ein Werk der Securitate? In: Zugänge 41 (2013), S. 129. Herrmann hatte 1932 den Sächsischen Arbeiterbund gegründet, trat 1948 als „langjähriger Sozialdemokrat“ dem Regionskomitee für den Friedenskampf bei, vgl. ACNSAS, Dossier MR 2534 SB, S. 6.  <a href="#9c993169-ce4c-4769-83aa-c15cfa0a861f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 40 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3b59a5f9-16af-4e76-8e2a-4451f4fafcb1">Bischof Friedrich Müller schildert in seinen Erinnerungen ausführlich, wie Stadtpfarrer Herrmann vom Kultusbevollmächtigten Gheorghe Moldovan zur Abdankung gedrängt wurde und die Bemühungen, Dechant Gross in dieses Amt wählen zu lassen, vgl. Friedrich Müller: Erinnerungen. Zum Weg der siebenbürgisch-sächsischen Kirche 1944–1964. Köln u. a. 1995, S. 192–196.  <a href="#3b59a5f9-16af-4e76-8e2a-4451f4fafcb1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 41 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d98b42f9-9a6e-4378-8270-a566f2cadcfe">Gheorghe Moldovan (1913–?), KP-Mitglied seit 1945, von Beruf Buchdrucker, 1956–1970 Kultusbeauftragter, meistens zeitgleich für die Rayons Hermannstadt, Agnetheln, Mediasch, Fogarasch.  <a href="#d98b42f9-9a6e-4378-8270-a566f2cadcfe-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 42 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="269895f6-77f3-4bb6-8bf7-46317190348c">ZAEKR, Bestand 400/276, Z. 52 (Sitzungsprotokolle des Presbyteriums und der Gemeindevertretung 1961–1964), ohne Seitenangabe. <a href="#269895f6-77f3-4bb6-8bf7-46317190348c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 43 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="345096b7-234e-4bbb-b6b6-029c063d2b10">Ebenda. <a href="#345096b7-234e-4bbb-b6b6-029c063d2b10-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 44 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="26aa191d-d926-42fc-b346-092beeadc7f7">ZAEKR, Bestand 103 (Landeskonsistorium), GZ 281 (ohne Seitenangabe). <a href="#26aa191d-d926-42fc-b346-092beeadc7f7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 45 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="196c86f2-6a02-4a65-81f1-f17d8454deac"> Eugen Duldner (1927–?), in Agnetheln geboren, Kenntnis der deutschen und ungarischen Sprache, Besuch der katholischen Schule, der politischen Kaderschule in Bukarest (1945) und Hermannstadt (1951/52), Militärdienst bei der Securitate (1949–1951), absolvierte im Fernkurs die Pädagogische Schule Kronstadt (1954). Kultusbevollmächtigter der Region Stalin/Kronstadt zwischen 1955–1984 und in diesem Amt für die Beaufsichtigung der EKR zuständig (Arhivele Naționale ale României – Nationale Archive Rumäniens [fortan ANR], Fonds Ministerul Cultelor și Artelor &#8211; Ministerium der Kulte und Künste [fortan MCA], Dossier 254/1967, S. 18–42; Adrian Nicolae Petcu: Împuternicitul de culte – între conformism și asigurarea libertății religioase [Der Kultusbevollmächtigte – zwischen Konformismus und Sicherung der Religionsfreiheit]. In: Caietele CNSAS 1–2 (2013), S. 7–82, hier S. 56–58.  <a href="#196c86f2-6a02-4a65-81f1-f17d8454deac-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 46 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9135456b-ee8f-4363-91c5-4a34994f8d7d">Die Auszüge aus dem Maßnahmenplan der Regionsdirektion Stalin der Securitate und dessen Umsetzung betreffend die Wahl von Gross zum Dechanten 1954 in seiner Akte, vgl. ACNSAS, MI 34893 SB, S. 36f. <a href="#9135456b-ee8f-4363-91c5-4a34994f8d7d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 47 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8e7eeff4-bca7-4c65-872b-d020902a5498">Duldner in der vermutlich an das Kultusdepartement gesandten Charakterisierung von Gross, vgl. ACNSAS, MI 2785 SB, S. 32–35. <a href="#8e7eeff4-bca7-4c65-872b-d020902a5498-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 48 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="31f1a396-37f8-49eb-9be9-08c43ef6664f"> Der von Ioan Olariu gezeichnete Bericht vom 23. März 1961 aufgrund des Gesprächs mit der Quelle „Albert“ – vermutlich Hauptanwalt der EKR Albert Hochmeister, da die Personaldaten sehr exakt sind. <a href="#31f1a396-37f8-49eb-9be9-08c43ef6664f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 49 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8da7f507-9346-4829-bb58-012605b99166">Das Bischofsamt hatte im Februar 1944 zehn Pfarrer ins Generalgouvernement entsandt, um die in dieses Gebiet „Heim ins Reich“-Umgesiedelten evangelischen Christen zu betreuen. <a href="#8da7f507-9346-4829-bb58-012605b99166-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 50 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b805f7bc-caa7-4577-9782-ff15bb27fc20">ACNSAS, MI 34893 SB, S. 10. <a href="#b805f7bc-caa7-4577-9782-ff15bb27fc20-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 51 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ba7945ce-460a-4b4e-a54f-f7e3b93c27ce">Viktor Glondys, Tagebuch. Aufzeichnungen von 1933 bis 1949. Hgg. Johann Böhm und Dieter Braeg. Dinklage 1997, S. 531. <a href="#ba7945ce-460a-4b4e-a54f-f7e3b93c27ce-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 52 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="23ffd2da-1107-49f2-adaa-a763d224ae1b">Das am 13.2.1949 auf Anordnung der KP gegründete „Deutsche Antifaschistische Komitee“ (DAK) und sein Propaganda-Organ, die in Bukarest erscheinende Tageszeitung <em>Neuer Weg,</em> sollten durch instrumentalisierte Vertreter aus den eigenen Reihen mittels „Klassenkampf“ die Umerziehung der rumäniendeutschen Bevölkerung und ihre Eingliederung in die sozialistische Gesellschaft gewährleisten.  <a href="#23ffd2da-1107-49f2-adaa-a763d224ae1b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 53 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="74d2cbac-4c6c-4358-88ef-ce76054f7a65">ACNSAS, MI 34893 SB, S. 22–24. <a href="#74d2cbac-4c6c-4358-88ef-ce76054f7a65-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 54 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="00c9cd07-b714-40c3-b1e2-a99168c01f79">Selbstbiografie vom 20.4.1960, vgl. ACNSAS, MI 2785 SB, S. 12–16. Der Bericht über die stufenweise Anwerbung trägt das Datum des 6.5.1960, vgl. ACNSAS, MI 2785 SB, S. 7–10.  <a href="#00c9cd07-b714-40c3-b1e2-a99168c01f79-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 55 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f272eb9d-7dc8-4fc9-a40f-68965fed7f79">ZAEKR, Bestand 400/276, Z. 52. <a href="#f272eb9d-7dc8-4fc9-a40f-68965fed7f79-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 56 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4858e28e-6676-4d08-a6b9-98782e9fa562">Vgl. Anm. 31.  <a href="#4858e28e-6676-4d08-a6b9-98782e9fa562-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 57 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3516b86d-76fb-4be6-8ae4-5f843b4a60d3">IM „Olteanu“ (auch „Olteanu Nicolae“) war, laut Altenlage, Rudolf Wolf (1904–1975), Ingenieur, Hermannstädter Bezirkskirchenkurator (1949–1966), Landeskirchenkurator (1954–1966), vgl. ACNSAS, Dossier MFI 11525 SB, S. 1–4, seine Charakterisierung als Informant: S. 25, seine Autobiografie: S. 46.  <a href="#3516b86d-76fb-4be6-8ae4-5f843b4a60d3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 58 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="41dcc0bf-4691-4703-9ad2-8e51b94623d5">Die Dechanten und die Kuratoren der Bezirke wurden alle vier Jahre gewählt.   <a href="#41dcc0bf-4691-4703-9ad2-8e51b94623d5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 59 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="aebb6e59-1e70-4315-b813-0438a3becd1a">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 20. <a href="#aebb6e59-1e70-4315-b813-0438a3becd1a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 60 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f58fea1d-3c7b-4098-888b-cb746dafeadb"> Ebenda, S. 21, Dokument 2. <a href="#f58fea1d-3c7b-4098-888b-cb746dafeadb-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 61 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ce522d6e-c670-4617-9b3c-b9f9eb492626"> Ebenda, S. 138–140, Dokument 3. <a href="#ce522d6e-c670-4617-9b3c-b9f9eb492626-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 62 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="daa788da-5731-4646-a66e-64d1c7100347">Ebenda, S. 22, Dokument 4. <a href="#daa788da-5731-4646-a66e-64d1c7100347-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 63 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="906a21ad-2663-4c97-ac0a-06019a622ab2">ANR, fond MCA, Dossier 89/1961, S. 3. Der mit dem 9.1.1962 datierte Tätigkeitsbericht ist in dem Dossier abgeheftet, der die Tätigkeitsberichte der Jahre 1961/62 aus der Region Kronstadt umfasst. <a href="#906a21ad-2663-4c97-ac0a-06019a622ab2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 64 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ee64e35b-b165-4b2c-89ab-e63dd0c8d7da">Vor allen wichtigen Wahlen fanden Verhandlungen statt zwischen Vertretern der Staatsmacht und dem Bischof oder den Dechanten und es war bekannt, dass es eine Parität geben muss zwischen den Wunschkandidaten der Staatsvertreter und jenen des Bischofs, vgl. Baier, Überwachung und Infiltration, S. 87, 339–368. <a href="#ee64e35b-b165-4b2c-89ab-e63dd0c8d7da-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 65 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e6f5f040-911f-455b-8ca8-b5b34ac40f73">ZAEKR, Bestand 400/276, Z. 52. <a href="#e6f5f040-911f-455b-8ca8-b5b34ac40f73-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 66 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a8ec26fd-c579-4d2d-9cbc-55522594e76d">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 16–19 sowie 134–137, Dokument 5. Der Adressat war vermutlich die Regionsdirektion Kronstadt der Securitate.  <a href="#a8ec26fd-c579-4d2d-9cbc-55522594e76d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 67 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d129aafb-6f99-4e72-b038-377cd6b608e3">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 14f., Bericht vom 24.1.1962, Dokument 6. Es konnte nicht entschlüsselt werden, wer der Informant war. <a href="#d129aafb-6f99-4e72-b038-377cd6b608e3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 68 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="94dae4cb-b16a-41cc-aed2-90c13bfab064">Bericht von „Petruc Valer“ vom 17.1.1961, vgl. ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 25.  <a href="#94dae4cb-b16a-41cc-aed2-90c13bfab064-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 69 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="945e2495-c383-477e-893e-017df0741eb1">Dumitru Dogaru (1907–1993), Literatur- und Philosophiestudium, danach Mitarbeiter des Soziologen Dimitrie Gusti, seit 1949 Mitarbeiter, 1957–1975 Generalsekretär im Kultusministerium. <a href="#945e2495-c383-477e-893e-017df0741eb1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 70 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a882a21b-5fec-4eab-856a-00c3b612f867">Müller: Erinnerungen, S. 196. <a href="#a882a21b-5fec-4eab-856a-00c3b612f867-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 71 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="dcdcaf24-2e71-4c54-ac60-90c1e46ec6e2">Trude Kast: Der zweite Teil der Geschichte der Familie Kast-Kristyn 1930–1980. Typoskript im Archiv des Siebenbürgen-Instituts in Gundelsheim am Neckar, Nachlassarchiv, BI V3/73, S. 292. Trude (Gertrud) Kast (1900–1988), Buchhalterin, nach der Verrentung zunächst Haushaltsdame bei Erwin Wittstock in Kronstadt, seit 1961 und bis zu dessen Tod 1969 bei Bischof Müller. <a href="#dcdcaf24-2e71-4c54-ac60-90c1e46ec6e2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 72 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="37ff50ad-c902-4816-a948-57279387159a">ZAEKR, Bestand 400/276, Z. 52. <a href="#37ff50ad-c902-4816-a948-57279387159a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 73 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0eb8965a-4b46-499c-8aee-3e21e0d71653">Ebenda. <a href="#0eb8965a-4b46-499c-8aee-3e21e0d71653-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 74 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6a459571-2a39-4d56-8fcf-2fa86ff50a8e">Seine handschriftliche Mitarbeitererklärung vgl. ACNSAS, MR 2168 SB, S. 72. <a href="#6a459571-2a39-4d56-8fcf-2fa86ff50a8e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 75 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ee07210e-48d2-435e-9af3-744c3203bcb8">Ebenda, S. 66f. In späteren Jahren berichten die Offiziere, es habe sich um persönliche Querelen in der Zusammenarbeit mit dem lokalen Volksgruppenvertreter gehandelt, die Weingärtner wiederholt als Widerstandshaltung interpretiert (ACNSAS, MFI 16025, Bd. 7, S. 1). <a href="#ee07210e-48d2-435e-9af3-744c3203bcb8-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 76 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d5a1256c-71fc-41ca-b69e-978f4866cba1">ACNSAS, MR 2168 SB, S. 62–65, die neuerliche Mitarbeitererklärung, S. 66. <a href="#d5a1256c-71fc-41ca-b69e-978f4866cba1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 77 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d4cd8f03-c8ff-483a-9059-0e5dfbd409d0">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 130; eine Kopie davon im ANR, fond MCA, Dossier 71/1962, S. 55. <a href="#d4cd8f03-c8ff-483a-9059-0e5dfbd409d0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 78 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6715fac5-b63e-4665-bfa5-195cfb2bc6f4">Ihre Namen sind in der Liste durchgestrichen, ZAEKR, Bestand 103, GZ 281. <a href="#6715fac5-b63e-4665-bfa5-195cfb2bc6f4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 79 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="92f825e8-6a89-48f5-9fb0-92c87e30192b">ANR, MCA, Dossier 89/1961, S. 9. <a href="#92f825e8-6a89-48f5-9fb0-92c87e30192b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 80 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a17ceb4d-bffe-4a07-9570-6dcf998da6ae">ANR, fond MCA, Dossier 89/1961, S. 3.  <a href="#a17ceb4d-bffe-4a07-9570-6dcf998da6ae-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 81 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="89ac72a8-49e3-4715-899e-ac59a1bc5fc7">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 132f. <a href="#89ac72a8-49e3-4715-899e-ac59a1bc5fc7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 82 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="73c4fb61-04f0-40bf-a274-c99fa4944e3d">Ebenda, S. 131.  <a href="#73c4fb61-04f0-40bf-a274-c99fa4944e3d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 83 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fd8af975-1d46-4b99-8590-e41fe994851c"> Zum Bischofsvikar wurde Hermann Binder (1911–2006), Dozent und Dekan des Theologischen Institut (1949–1978), Bischofsvikar (1962–1978), Vertreter der EKR unter anderen bei der Konferenz Europäischer Kirchen (1958–1959), der Christlichen Friedenskonferenz in Prag (1960–1970) sowie im Ökumenischen Rat der Kirchen (1961–1972).  <a href="#fd8af975-1d46-4b99-8590-e41fe994851c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 84 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5a8eacdc-c3c4-4b26-8ad2-a813be7b6853">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 143–146. Dokument 7. <a href="#5a8eacdc-c3c4-4b26-8ad2-a813be7b6853-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 85 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="75c062d0-f991-4d96-b7c8-40063b09fbb1">ACNSAS, MR 2168 SB, S. 49–51, S. 84–87. <a href="#75c062d0-f991-4d96-b7c8-40063b09fbb1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 86 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4892ba00-acbf-4cb4-9d28-8558e0b97b90">In der auf den 5.9.1963 datierten Charakterisierung des Informanten meint der Leiter des Securitate-Rayonsdienstes Hermannstadt (Dumitru Surd), die Unterstützung der Kandidatur von Gross sei „lächerlich“ (ridicolă) gewesen, da er sich wenig Popularität unter den Pfarrern erfreue und ein „Trinker“ (element bețiv) sei. Durch diese Bemerkungen versuchten die Offiziere sicher auch ihren Misserfolg zu rechtfertigen (vgl. ACNSAS, MI 2785 SB S. 23f.). Beantragt hat Gross zunächst eine Ausreisegenehmigung nach Österreich (ebenda, S. 36–38), er reiste 1971 in die Bundesrepublik Deutschland aus (MI 34893 SB, S. 57).  <a href="#4892ba00-acbf-4cb4-9d28-8558e0b97b90-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 87 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8233a26c-1944-4d11-b8aa-a40eb9293b73">Vgl. Baier: Überwachung und Infiltration, S. 284–288.  <a href="#8233a26c-1944-4d11-b8aa-a40eb9293b73-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 88 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="05b3d73c-ee87-490d-a63f-1c7cc7077814"> ACNSAS, MFI 16026 SB, Bd. 7, S. 55–57, beobachtet und verfolgt wurde er unter den Decknamen „Walter“ bzw. „Velcu“, (ACNSAS, MFI 16025, Bd. 1, S. 1–4, Bd. 7, S. 4–10 bzw. Bd. 2, S. 8–10). Mit „Emil Popescu“ unterzeichnete Berichte sind bis 1978 abgeheftet. (Ebenda, Bd. 7, S. 53). <a href="#05b3d73c-ee87-490d-a63f-1c7cc7077814-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 89 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fba3995b-ddf9-48ff-994d-e3d4bfbb93db">ZAEKR, Bestand 400/276, Z. 52. <a href="#fba3995b-ddf9-48ff-994d-e3d4bfbb93db-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 90 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="95293281-ce11-4012-a8ec-959e89cc5835">Die „operative Evidenz“ war eine Datenbasis oder -bank auf zentraler oder lokaler Ebene, in der neben einem vorgedruckten Personalbogen, in den die Informationen über die Person, Vorhaben oder Probleme, die zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt für die Securitate von Interesse waren oder sein könnten, auch die Person betreffende Unterlagen abgeheftet wurden. Im Fall von Reich waren es 54 Seiten. Zwischen 1956–1972 wurde die Operative Evidenz von Dienst C der Securitate organisiert und verwaltet. Betreffend das Führen und Ergänzen der Datenbank wurden wiederholt Anordnungen erteilt, in unserem Fall wurden vermutlich jene von 1961 befolgt. Vgl. ACNSAS, Dossier 3616, Bd. 10, S. 38–60, http://www.cnsas.ro/documente/acte_normative/DJ%203619_010%20fila%20038-060.pdf, 17.11.2021. <a href="#95293281-ce11-4012-a8ec-959e89cc5835-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 91 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6f400e84-80b7-4819-8972-710d1844bbc5">Die Aufnahme von Pfarrer Reich in die operative Datenbasis erfolgte vermutlich auf Grund des in Dokument 7 zitierten Befehls der Regionsdirektion der Securitate Kronstadt. <a href="#6f400e84-80b7-4819-8972-710d1844bbc5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 92 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="15f971f7-53d4-4608-96ab-8df3892aad3c">Als „fanatisch“ wurden jene bezeichnet, die sich vom Glauben und der Kirche nicht abbringen ließen.  <a href="#15f971f7-53d4-4608-96ab-8df3892aad3c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 93 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="04195315-a996-4cea-a3ca-9da52f06ecd6">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 62–62v.    <a href="#04195315-a996-4cea-a3ca-9da52f06ecd6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 94 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="56d24432-7fb2-460f-8b03-2f30b0533db1"> Vasile Machedon (1931–1993), Offizier der Regionaldirektion Hermannstadt (1950–1953) sowie Stalin (1953–1968), innerhalb derer zeitweilig im Rayonsdienst und sodann des Kreisinspektorates der Securitate Hermannstadt (1968–1975). <a href="#56d24432-7fb2-460f-8b03-2f30b0533db1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 95 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8c34a3ac-30c8-45be-9091-22a3cec9771a">ACNSAS, MI 34893 SB, S. 56–56v. Die Aufnahme in die Datenbasis erfolgte in seinem Fall 1962.  <a href="#8c34a3ac-30c8-45be-9091-22a3cec9771a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 96 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6b88f032-3ab5-420a-8e91-26612d913ec6">ACNSAS, MFI 9893 SB, S. 84, Dokument 8. <a href="#6b88f032-3ab5-420a-8e91-26612d913ec6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 97 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li></ol><p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/der-wunschkandidat-fallt-durch-securitate-und-kultusdepartement-manipulieren-die-wahl-des-hermannstadter-stadtpfarrers/">Der Wunschkandidat fällt durch. Securitate und Kultusdepartement manipulieren die Wahl des Hermannstädter Stadtpfarrers  </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<title>Post-Imperial Biographies in the Russian–Romanian Borderlands. The Case of the Bessarabian Pantelimon V. Sinadino </title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/post-imperial-biographies-in-the-russian-romanian-borderlands-the-case-of-the-bessarabian-pantelimon-v-sinadinopost-imperial-biographies-in-the-russian-romanian-borderlands/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 12:12:46 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Wissenschaft]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=831</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Svetlana Suveica, University of Regensburg  The profound political changes which occurred in Eastern Europe during World War I and immediately thereafter had a profound impact on local society. By the end of 1917, the region of Bessarabia, after a short period of independence, had separated from the Russian Empire to merge with Romania in April [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/post-imperial-biographies-in-the-russian-romanian-borderlands-the-case-of-the-bessarabian-pantelimon-v-sinadinopost-imperial-biographies-in-the-russian-romanian-borderlands/">Post-Imperial Biographies in the Russian–Romanian Borderlands. The Case of the Bessarabian Pantelimon V. Sinadino </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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<p>Svetlana Suveica, University of Regensburg </p>



<p>The profound political changes which occurred in Eastern Europe during World War I and immediately thereafter had a profound impact on local society. By the end of 1917, the region of Bessarabia, after a short period of independence, had separated from the Russian Empire to merge with Romania in April 1918. The examination of the biographical path of Pantelimon V. Sinadino, the former mayor of Chișinău and a large landowner, provides valuable insights into how the representatives of the former imperial elite perceived the complex transformations, adapted to new political realities, and coped with various social and economic challenges. Sinadino’s letters and personal notes reveal his simultaneous mourning the dissolution of the Russian Empire, the fear of the coming of the Bolsheviks, the hesitation when Bessarabia united with Romania and the search for a role within the new political entity. Moreover, during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, Sinadino became very active in supporting the Bessarabian émigrés who worked with the Russian Whites for the restoration of a “Greater Russia” and the return of his native Bessarabia to Russian protection. In this article, I reconstruct the path of Sinadino’s biography to reveal how he reacted both as an individual and as a prominent representative of the regional elite in Bessarabia to the political changes in a time of great distress. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Writing a Post-imperial Biography: The Methodological Challenges </h2>



<p>As Tim Buchen and Malte Rolf put it, writing an imperial biography of a member of the elite means showing how the empire was entangled with their life and career.<sup data-fn="5dbb73f5-1bc2-40d7-a15b-1ff3236b4462" class="fn"><a href="#5dbb73f5-1bc2-40d7-a15b-1ff3236b4462" id="5dbb73f5-1bc2-40d7-a15b-1ff3236b4462-link">1</a></sup> Putting together pieces concerning their public activity, reconstructing the social milieu in which an individual acquired their education and practised their profession, and depicting social interactions that show connections and joint activities are indispensable parts of the process. As successfully demonstrated by other scholars, biographies – be they of a public employee, an academic, a military or a political figure, an expert or an entrepreneur – allow, on the one hand, the presentation of the subject’s path within the empire and after its dissolution, while on the other hand they enable us to see the empire through the eyes of an individual, as an amalgamate of opportunities and restraints.<sup data-fn="74f4fa95-26f2-4607-a48c-ba3c1650dff7" class="fn"><a href="#74f4fa95-26f2-4607-a48c-ba3c1650dff7" id="74f4fa95-26f2-4607-a48c-ba3c1650dff7-link">2</a></sup><sup data-fn="78afa9fd-fdfd-43e8-91f8-fc9d1c7c8fd2" class="fn"><a href="#78afa9fd-fdfd-43e8-91f8-fc9d1c7c8fd2" id="78afa9fd-fdfd-43e8-91f8-fc9d1c7c8fd2-link">3</a></sup></p>



<p>Writing a post-imperial biography means facing additional challenges, since reconstructing the trajectory of someone’s life during the aftermath of empire often means collecting pieces of information about the life of an émigré across borders or even across continents.<sup data-fn="271b3a22-43e8-4958-87c2-131f6bfdde37" class="fn"><a href="#271b3a22-43e8-4958-87c2-131f6bfdde37" id="271b3a22-43e8-4958-87c2-131f6bfdde37-link">4</a></sup> Such is the case of former representatives of the imperial elite, nobles and landowners, as well as other inhabitants of Bessarabia who emigrated from the region for the political, economic or security reasons related to the war, the Revolution of 1917, or Bessarabia’s change in status as a Romanian province in the spring of 1918. Regardless of their decision to stay in Bessarabia or leave, the inhabitants had to face the changes and adapt to challenges, and often had to fight for their security and even their daily bread. </p>



<p> When the Russian Empire collapsed in the spring of 1917, the borders shifted, and Petersburg (from 1914 on, Petrograd) disappeared as a centre of power. On the former western periphery of Bessarabia, the new revolutionary elite took over the levers of power from the imperial elite. The situation was challenging due to the spread of anarchy following the dispersal of the Russian army on the Romanian front.<sup data-fn="8b82a0a6-a5e1-41d5-bb24-c593e83c54a6" class="fn"><a href="#8b82a0a6-a5e1-41d5-bb24-c593e83c54a6" id="8b82a0a6-a5e1-41d5-bb24-c593e83c54a6-link">5</a></sup> To establish control over the region and secure the lives and wealth of its inhabitants, on 23–27 October 1917 (O.S.),<sup data-fn="a3178d98-0b55-4e95-9f33-e9ecbff56a9d" class="fn"><a href="#a3178d98-0b55-4e95-9f33-e9ecbff56a9d" id="a3178d98-0b55-4e95-9f33-e9ecbff56a9d-link">6</a></sup> at the initiative of Moldovan militaries on the Russian front, the regional diet of Sfatul Țării was created. Following the declaration of Ukrainian autonomy, and then Ukraine’s separation from the Russian Federative Republic, the Moldavian Democratic Republic was created on 2 December 1917 (O.S.). After the entrance of the Romanian troops in Bessarabia, the independence of the Moldavian Republic was declared on 24 January 1918 (O.S.). This corresponded to the military-strategic and economic interests of both the Entente and the Central Powers. The latter pushed for separate peace negotiations with Romania and approved the union of Bessarabia under the condition that Romania would cede control of the Dobruja region to Bulgaria.<sup data-fn="e0bd9807-474e-4663-98c1-328aceb7eac8" class="fn"><a href="#e0bd9807-474e-4663-98c1-328aceb7eac8" id="e0bd9807-474e-4663-98c1-328aceb7eac8-link">7</a></sup> The negotiations between the Romanian Government and the Bessarabian regional diet, the Sfatul Țării, were finalised with a compromise decision: on April 9, 1918, Bessarabia united with Romania on the condition that its autonomous status would be preserved.<sup data-fn="6bcd751a-c709-40cb-a1b9-78932315060e" class="fn"><a href="#6bcd751a-c709-40cb-a1b9-78932315060e" id="6bcd751a-c709-40cb-a1b9-78932315060e-link">8</a></sup> Six months later, the union’s conditions were abolished.<sup data-fn="444a3858-5678-4803-98ad-c857cea9e31a" class="fn"><a href="#444a3858-5678-4803-98ad-c857cea9e31a" id="444a3858-5678-4803-98ad-c857cea9e31a-link">9</a></sup></p>



<p>Undoubtedly, biographies overlap with the social and cultural histories of the society in which they evolve.<sup data-fn="0d767030-15f2-416c-8028-1bb133b88b52" class="fn"><a href="#0d767030-15f2-416c-8028-1bb133b88b52" id="0d767030-15f2-416c-8028-1bb133b88b52-link">10</a></sup> For the Bessarabians who had lived in the region for decades, it was a liminal state, a state of in-betweenness dominated by feelings of loss, insecurity, and uncertainty.<sup data-fn="d3090702-1176-492e-b403-152f527c77c7" class="fn"><a href="#d3090702-1176-492e-b403-152f527c77c7" id="d3090702-1176-492e-b403-152f527c77c7-link">11</a></sup> The Russian “motherland” had vanished, and Romania had yet to become a point of political and economic reference; it would take time for the change to rules and regularities, social norms, and categories to be acknowledged. At the same time, in the new social and political context they questioned their own identity and formulated visions of belonging. The biography of Pantelimon V. Sinadino is one of many life paths that reveal segments of larger regional and international (hi)stories after World War One. How Sinadino perceived profound political and social changes in his native region Bessarabia, in which ways he was affected by them, how he envisaged the future of his region, and what he did to fulfil his visions will be discussed in the following pages.  </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Pantelimon V. Sinadino: A Short Biography  </h2>



<p>Pantelimon V. Sinadino was born in 1875 in the city of Kishinev (Chișinău) in the Russian gubernia of Bessarabia. Sinadino’s family was well known in the city: his grandfather, Pantelimon I. Sinadino, of Greek origin, served as mayor of Chișinău for two terms (1837–1839 and 1840–1842), and his father, the merchant Victor Sinadino, was the founder of several banks and enterprises in Bessarabia and Odessa.<sup data-fn="b55bcb6f-1aa2-4eb1-acb8-32f4bcb146a5" class="fn"><a href="#b55bcb6f-1aa2-4eb1-acb8-32f4bcb146a5" id="b55bcb6f-1aa2-4eb1-acb8-32f4bcb146a5-link">12</a></sup> The Sinadinos were active supporters of the Bessarabian Greek community’s cultural and religious life in the region.<sup data-fn="64f2a89e-aede-4976-a2c3-142292c4ed23" class="fn"><a href="#64f2a89e-aede-4976-a2c3-142292c4ed23" id="64f2a89e-aede-4976-a2c3-142292c4ed23-link">13</a></sup> In 1905, Sinadino married Kseniia Il&#8217;inichna Kobieva, from a family of hereditary nobles from Tiflis gubernia,<sup data-fn="b4ca47b3-29f0-42b8-bf2d-cf9c757f873e" class="fn"><a href="#b4ca47b3-29f0-42b8-bf2d-cf9c757f873e" id="b4ca47b3-29f0-42b8-bf2d-cf9c757f873e-link">14</a></sup> with whom he had two children. The family possessed around 3,535 desiatines of land, located in the centre of Bessarabia.<sup data-fn="5632a82e-b521-4442-8aeb-713e75538b89" class="fn"><a href="#5632a82e-b521-4442-8aeb-713e75538b89" id="5632a82e-b521-4442-8aeb-713e75538b89-link">15</a></sup></p>



<p>Pantelimon acquired a university degree in medicine and studied economy and finance at Taras Shevchenko University in Kyiv. He remained loyal to the latter domain, embarking upon a career in public administration and publishing on the economy and credit system in Bessarabia.<sup data-fn="102a9956-fb1c-46b2-8b0d-bee67b98410e" class="fn"><a href="#102a9956-fb1c-46b2-8b0d-bee67b98410e" id="102a9956-fb1c-46b2-8b0d-bee67b98410e-link">16</a></sup> He began his rise as an administrator as a member of the Orhei Council of the local zemstvo. In 1902, he was appointed vice-mayor of Chișinău, and in 1903 he became a member of the Chișinău executive body (<em>uprava</em>). He was appointed mayor of Chișinău on 25 April 1903, immediately after the Jewish pogrom that gained the city notoriety throughout the world.<sup data-fn="e16f1ac3-03dc-4c15-9bc0-cbc30b2d7f4c" class="fn"><a href="#e16f1ac3-03dc-4c15-9bc0-cbc30b2d7f4c" id="e16f1ac3-03dc-4c15-9bc0-cbc30b2d7f4c-link">17</a></sup> After a short break (20 January 1904–11 November 1905), Sinadino was re-elected as mayor for a four-year term. This was after the Russian Revolution of 1905, the events of which also played out in the region on a moderate scale.<sup data-fn="06e05cbb-4141-4710-bea4-ac1269c6c4a0" class="fn"><a href="#06e05cbb-4141-4710-bea4-ac1269c6c4a0" id="06e05cbb-4141-4710-bea4-ac1269c6c4a0-link">18</a></sup> Sinadino’s political affiliation with the conservative monarchists (he was a member of the Bessarabian Centre Party) opened the door to the State Duma, a duty he honoured, with interruptions, between February 1907 and February 1917.<sup data-fn="bd9084e6-8b17-4623-8266-572819407b54" class="fn"><a href="#bd9084e6-8b17-4623-8266-572819407b54" id="bd9084e6-8b17-4623-8266-572819407b54-link">19</a></sup> As a member of the Duma, Sinadino initiated a series of legislative acts.<sup data-fn="b3a22453-a302-4344-813a-6c13b875d094" class="fn"><a href="#b3a22453-a302-4344-813a-6c13b875d094" id="b3a22453-a302-4344-813a-6c13b875d094-link">20</a></sup> Between 22 October 1909 and 15 February 1910, he served a third term as mayor of Chișinău. </p>



<p>The last days of the empire found Pantelimon V. Sinadino in his native city. After the creation of the regional diet, the Sfatul Țării, on 21 November 1917, he joined the legislative body on behalf of the national organisation of the Bessarabian Greek community. In the inaugural session of the Sfatul Țării, he greeted the assembly “in the name of the Greek minority,” expressing the hope that it would “install in our native land order, legality and peace, to protect the life, liberty and wealth of all those who will have the highest honour to live under the freed Bessarabia. […] Long live the free autonomous state of Bessarabia!”<sup data-fn="5601e852-f1a6-4c6b-b673-30bb3fd8b79a" class="fn"><a href="#5601e852-f1a6-4c6b-b673-30bb3fd8b79a" id="5601e852-f1a6-4c6b-b673-30bb3fd8b79a-link">21</a></sup></p>



<p>In early 1918, at the invitation of the president of the Sfatul Țării, Ion Inculeț, Sinadino agreed to act as an economic expert within a Bessarabian delegation that was supposed to meet with Gen. August von Mackensen,<sup data-fn="20ad65ed-9e33-402a-80bc-e15aa5d98954" class="fn"><a href="#20ad65ed-9e33-402a-80bc-e15aa5d98954" id="20ad65ed-9e33-402a-80bc-e15aa5d98954-link">22</a></sup> but the initiative was cancelled. Sinadino also advised the Directorate of Finances – a ministry of the Moldovan Autonomous Democratic Republic – on the possibility of the republic issuing its own currency. He honoured his mandate as a Sfatul Țării deputy with interruptions; in December 1917 he was excluded from the legislative body due to the precarious condition of his health.<sup data-fn="af72b89f-682c-4ba0-a9b5-1a37f56a6368" class="fn"><a href="#af72b89f-682c-4ba0-a9b5-1a37f56a6368" id="af72b89f-682c-4ba0-a9b5-1a37f56a6368-link">23</a></sup> According to another version, his exclusion followed after the events described below.  </p>



<p>On 24 January 1918, the Sfatul Țării declared the independence of the Moldovan Democratic Republic. This was facilitated by the Romanian troops’ having already entered Bessarabia. The destruction to property and other acts of anarchy in the region by the Russian soldiers passing through on their way home had done little to make the wealthy of Bessarabia feel secure.  On 18 March 1918, Sinadino led a delegation of the Union of Bessarabian Large Landowners to King Ferdinand in Iași. The delegation requested the union of Bessarabia with Romania as a solution for saving the region from the Bolsheviks. The request was made a couple of weeks before the Sfatul Țării voted for the union of Bessarabia with Romania. During the summer of 1918, Sinadino could be found leading the Bessarabian Progressive Party. In this function, in an interview for a Romanian regional newspaper, Sinadino expressed “feelings of admiration and gratitude” towards the Romanian Army that had “saved” the region from Bolshevism. He argued that the union was a “general desire and should not be attributed to isolated persons,” or solely to the decision of the Sfatul Țării of 9 April.<sup data-fn="461f3b4b-f9ac-4f03-bb21-41e954f2278b" class="fn"><a href="#461f3b4b-f9ac-4f03-bb21-41e954f2278b" id="461f3b4b-f9ac-4f03-bb21-41e954f2278b-link">24</a></sup> After their return from Iași, the Sfatul Țării deputies had threatened landowners from the counties<sup data-fn="5bb9e3fc-7548-454b-8628-c97d75299e33" class="fn"><a href="#5bb9e3fc-7548-454b-8628-c97d75299e33" id="5bb9e3fc-7548-454b-8628-c97d75299e33-link">25</a></sup> of Bălți, Soroca, Orhei, and Bender with prosecution for the “betrayal of the Moldavian Republic.” A memorandum addressed by the Union of Bessarabian Large Landowners to the Romanian parliament in September 1918 indicates that Sinadino lost his mandate as a deputy after making the trip to Iași and requesting the union of Bessarabia with Romania.<sup data-fn="e5fe651c-7bd3-4d8c-8568-bea37d30c81b" class="fn"><a href="#e5fe651c-7bd3-4d8c-8568-bea37d30c81b" id="e5fe651c-7bd3-4d8c-8568-bea37d30c81b-link">26</a></sup></p>



<p>Between 1924 and 1940, Sinadino was the head of the insurance division and a member of the board of the People’s Bank of Bessarabia.<sup> </sup> As for his political preferences, in 1933, at the proposal of the Liberal leader Ion Gheorghe Duca, Sinadino became a member of the National Liberal Party (Partidul Național Liberal, PNL) and actively engaged in the electoral campaign for the district of Chișinău, which he represented as a senator in the Romanian Parliament (1933–1937). In 1937, he joined the National Peasants Party (Partidul Național Țărănesc, PNȚ). A year later, when King Carol II banned political parties, all public employees were automatically included in the sole party, the National Renaissance Front (Frontul Renașterii Naționale, FRN).<sup data-fn="43337a34-0a95-4a30-ba21-79c02bbd2f93" class="fn"><a href="#43337a34-0a95-4a30-ba21-79c02bbd2f93" id="43337a34-0a95-4a30-ba21-79c02bbd2f93-link">27</a></sup></p>



<p>The occupation of Bessarabia by the Soviet army in June 1940 proved fatal for Sinadino. On 9 July 1940, he was arrested and charged with “counter-revolutionary activity, directed against the revolutionary working class of Bessarabia and its defender – the Communist Party.”<sup data-fn="35d503d2-1cc5-4231-90e0-0cc5f561face" class="fn"><a href="#35d503d2-1cc5-4231-90e0-0cc5f561face" id="35d503d2-1cc5-4231-90e0-0cc5f561face-link">28</a></sup> The last piece of information about Sinadino indicates that he was put in the Penza prison, where he presumably died.<sup data-fn="ea158dd0-9699-4f3b-b7a7-d61463e2e236" class="fn"><a href="#ea158dd0-9699-4f3b-b7a7-d61463e2e236" id="ea158dd0-9699-4f3b-b7a7-d61463e2e236-link">29</a></sup> His family managed to escape to Bucharest. Such was the dramatic end to Sinadino’s tumultuous life. </p>



<p>This rather brief version of Sinadino’s biographical path indicates the fact that after 1918 he successfully adapted to the new life and continued his career within Greater Romania. At the same time, new archival sources from various countries and in various languages<sup data-fn="3357ccf6-2445-4568-9a03-f2b6f47098fc" class="fn"><a href="#3357ccf6-2445-4568-9a03-f2b6f47098fc" id="3357ccf6-2445-4568-9a03-f2b6f47098fc-link">30</a></sup> reveal hitherto unknown details about the period from 1917–1919, in which the dramatic shifts in Sinadino’s life occurred.  </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A Landowner Fights for his Property </h2>



<p>In July 1940, when Pantelimon V. Sinadino was arrested and questioned by the Soviet secret police (NKVD), he testified that the actions he took in 1918 in support of the union of Bessarabia with Romania were solely motivated by the urgent need to preserve his private property. The situation in Bessarabia and the circumstances which facilitated the landowners’ decision to go to Iași and seek the protection of the Romanian king will be examined more closely in this section.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the summer of 1917, in Bessarabia, similar to other Russian gubernias, peasants began to take over the landowners’ estates. The anarchic expropriation of the land gained in intensity by the autumn, the regional bodies being unable to control the situation.<sup data-fn="1881e7d0-e694-4de4-ae5d-102acb2349d5" class="fn"><a href="#1881e7d0-e694-4de4-ae5d-102acb2349d5" id="1881e7d0-e694-4de4-ae5d-102acb2349d5-link">31</a></sup> After the Romanian troops entered the region, Sinadino initiated the creation of the Union of Bessarabian Large Landowners, intending to represent the landowners’ interests to the Romanian authorities. On February 21, 1918, the Sfatul Țării issued a decree according to which the land was “socialised.”<sup data-fn="10ea14ee-7905-4d57-ad7f-519af311fbe0" class="fn"><a href="#10ea14ee-7905-4d57-ad7f-519af311fbe0" id="10ea14ee-7905-4d57-ad7f-519af311fbe0-link">32</a></sup> Following the advice of the Military Commissioner of Bessarabia, Duiliu Zamfirescu,<sup data-fn="4c41b4ec-889e-463f-af2a-f0b05cc8ee06" class="fn"><a href="#4c41b4ec-889e-463f-af2a-f0b05cc8ee06" id="4c41b4ec-889e-463f-af2a-f0b05cc8ee06-link">33</a></sup> the large landowners’ representatives went to meet the Romanian King Ferdinand in Iași. The memorandum addressed to the king described the “revolutionary attempts” in the region and requested that it merge with Romania.<sup data-fn="7f57f215-3584-4b13-a30b-5016a9065bf1" class="fn"><a href="#7f57f215-3584-4b13-a30b-5016a9065bf1" id="7f57f215-3584-4b13-a30b-5016a9065bf1-link">34</a></sup> In another memorandum issued several days later, the landowners requested the instalment of the Romanian military administration in Bessarabia, which was gripped by anarchy. The document emphasised the impotence and institutional arbitrariness of the Sfatul Țării.<sup data-fn="8dfe90fd-b8d8-45d7-a5b8-bf6de95e4d8d" class="fn"><a href="#8dfe90fd-b8d8-45d7-a5b8-bf6de95e4d8d" id="8dfe90fd-b8d8-45d7-a5b8-bf6de95e4d8d-link">35</a></sup> Fearing the Sfatul Țării’s promises of radical expropriation of land, which found significant support among the peasants, many of whom were war veterans, the landowners hoped that the change in political status would help avoid the region’s and their own economic ruin. At the same time, while engaging in negotiations with the Romanian authorities for the protection of property, the landowners received assurances from Alexandru Marghiloman, Romanian prime minister and head of the Conservative Party, of future participation in political, economic and social life in the region.<sup data-fn="fc91f1f5-5358-4337-9b0a-1a4b4a7f7a44" class="fn"><a href="#fc91f1f5-5358-4337-9b0a-1a4b4a7f7a44" id="fc91f1f5-5358-4337-9b0a-1a4b4a7f7a44-link">36</a></sup></p>



<p>After April 9, 1918, the Sfatul Țării deputies continued to exercise their duty, contrary to Marghiloman’s statement on the existing plans for its immediate dissolution. The elaboration of the agrarian legislation for Bessarabia by the Sfatul Țării was one of the conditions of the union. In such a situation, the Romanian government looked for ways to reconcile the two sides – the Sfatul Țării and the large landowners – which had contradicting solutions to the agrarian issue. This difficult task was handed over to the government representative in the region, Constantin Stere, who earlier had played a crucial role in persuading the Bessarabian deputies to vote in favour of the union. From March to June 1918, Stere met privately several times with Sinadino, discussing the situation in the region and possible solutions to the social and economic crisis. Stere assured Sinadino that the Romanian government would insist before the Sfatul Țării that the expropriation of land would take place “with redemption and within the limits of necessity.” While emphasising that in Bessarabia, the agrarian reform was “revolutionary, bottom-up, and not evolutionary, from top to bottom, as in Romania,” Stere proposed that the landowners work together with the Romanian government and the Sfatul Țării to “finally give Bessarabia what it has wanted for so long: progress, knowledge, order and statehood.”<sup data-fn="23218ff9-35df-4890-8d46-2c7f4541ba1b" class="fn"><a href="#23218ff9-35df-4890-8d46-2c7f4541ba1b" id="23218ff9-35df-4890-8d46-2c7f4541ba1b-link">37</a></sup></p>



<p>Stere’s proposal that landowners participate in the works of the Agrarian commission of the Sfatul Țării, which elaborated the agrarian draft law for Bessarabia, was first rejected by the large landowners.<sup data-fn="f7d135fb-8ec5-41e3-b769-18352f0ae9f4" class="fn"><a href="#f7d135fb-8ec5-41e3-b769-18352f0ae9f4" id="f7d135fb-8ec5-41e3-b769-18352f0ae9f4-link">38</a></sup> Sinadino then assumed the role of a mediator, inviting Stere to explain the proposal’s advantages before his counterparts. As a result, seven landowners, including Sinadino, took part in two sessions of the commission, albeit without success. According to a memorandum drafted by the Union of Bessarabian Large Landowners, the commission’s reaction to the landowners’ proposals, namely the extension in Bessarabia of the agrarian legislation of the Old Kingdom and the legalisation of free sale of land, was “unfriendly” to say the least: while some claimed that proposals would delay the work of the Agrarian commission, others referred to the 1917 “peasants’ movement,” threatening the landowners with a “new night of St. Bartholomew.”<sup data-fn="a89100ea-c4f7-4c46-bd66-3643c11a645a" class="fn"><a href="#a89100ea-c4f7-4c46-bd66-3643c11a645a" id="a89100ea-c4f7-4c46-bd66-3643c11a645a-link">39</a></sup></p>



<p>During other private meetings between the two, Stere explicitly told Sinadino that the Romanian government was interested in solving the “agrarian question” in the region “primarily in terms of solving the national question here,” that is, when it came to both expropriation and endowment, it was the Romanians who had priority. For Bessarabia to become “definitively Romanian,” there were plans to re-populate the land with the Romanians in areas where they were in the minority. For that purpose, around 600,000 desiatines were to be expropriated; Stere claimed:&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>The land will be taken from the landowners who are not Moldovans or, more precisely, who do not like the idea of the union of Bessarabia with Romania. For example, all land must be taken in exchange for retribution from Count Sviatopolk Mirskii, Krupenskii, Ermolinskii and others, but others whom we need will keep their lands. We need sympathisers, we need to keep the large landowners who will be later entrusted with the administration of this land.<sup data-fn="b75834d4-4b41-4378-b172-7ce3d825e747" class="fn"><a href="#b75834d4-4b41-4378-b172-7ce3d825e747" id="b75834d4-4b41-4378-b172-7ce3d825e747-link">40</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>According to Stere, those large landowners who merged with Romanians would receive the state’s support, while the others, in contrast, would have to “liquidate their corners and leave.”<sup data-fn="08dc8a3f-3d44-4ccd-b083-58eca66dc6f8" class="fn"><a href="#08dc8a3f-3d44-4ccd-b083-58eca66dc6f8" id="08dc8a3f-3d44-4ccd-b083-58eca66dc6f8-link">41</a></sup></p>



<p>The differentiated attitude towards the landowners based on their expression of loyalty to the Romanian state did not come as a surprise for Sinadino. One of the disloyal landowners was Alexander N. Krupenskii, who left Bessarabia for Odessa in April 1918, but the status of his estates remained unclarified.<sup data-fn="8dfcb5fb-f264-47e1-83d3-cb085f8b0266" class="fn"><a href="#8dfcb5fb-f264-47e1-83d3-cb085f8b0266" id="8dfcb5fb-f264-47e1-83d3-cb085f8b0266-link">42</a></sup> In his letters to Krupenskii, written between September 1918 and January 1920,<sup data-fn="4052a2f3-8bee-453b-a60a-c9f2c07329ac" class="fn"><a href="#4052a2f3-8bee-453b-a60a-c9f2c07329ac" id="4052a2f3-8bee-453b-a60a-c9f2c07329ac-link">43</a></sup> Sinadino expressed his profound disappointment with the fact that the Romanian government had left the agrarian reform to the regional diet, which opted for the radical expropriation of land.<sup data-fn="e871eaff-abe1-47a1-8113-4f4ae893ebac" class="fn"><a href="#e871eaff-abe1-47a1-8113-4f4ae893ebac" id="e871eaff-abe1-47a1-8113-4f4ae893ebac-link">44</a></sup> These letters also reveal that the passive position of the Romanians towards the agrarian issue was the essential motive for the landowners’ critical attitude towards the union of Bessarabia with Romania. Moreover, many would prefer the region’s return to Russia’s protection. At the beginning of 1919, when the regional autonomy of Bessarabia inside Romania was cancelled, Sinadino wrote to Krupenskii, who was in Paris, that “the best thing would be for the Great Powers to consider Bessarabia what it was before, that is, Russian, for the decisions of self-proclaimed Bolshevik institutions [Sfatul Țării] cannot be taken seriously.”<sup data-fn="3ba4f0a0-a4f0-4301-a987-53d9112b8d8e" class="fn"><a href="#3ba4f0a0-a4f0-4301-a987-53d9112b8d8e" id="3ba4f0a0-a4f0-4301-a987-53d9112b8d8e-link">45</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A Mediator between the Chișinău Mayoralty and the Romanian Government </h2>



<p>After Bessarabia merged with Romania, the process of Romanianisation began. Regional officials and local employees expressed dissatisfaction with the intention of the new authorities to eliminate the Russian language from the administration and educational and cultural institutions. Teachers and lawyers refused to take the oath to the king to enter Romanian public service. There was little prospect of the government’s cooperation with the former local elite. During one of the meetings with Pantelimon V. Sinadino, the governmental representative Constantin Stere complained that the effort of the Romanian government was met by the former elite representatives with reluctance. Sinadino himself turned down the position of minister of finance. Due to the “plot” concocted by the locals, claimed Stere, the government was left with no option but to take a radical step: “To establish effective governance in the country, the public officials from the [Old] Kingdom will be invited.”<sup data-fn="c6351518-9b6a-4126-b26e-8abebf798518" class="fn"><a href="#c6351518-9b6a-4126-b26e-8abebf798518" id="c6351518-9b6a-4126-b26e-8abebf798518-link">46</a></sup></p>



<p>The new government attempted to persuade the local public employees to comply with the legal and administrative changes. One such attempt was to change the social and political composition of the Chișinău executive council (<em>uprava</em>). Led by mayor Alexander K. Schmidt, the son of a former Chisinau mayor of German origin, Karol Schmidt, the <em>uprava</em> did not want to accept the region’s new political status. Elected in the autumn of 1917 under the pressure of local revolutionary organisations, the <em>uprava</em> rejected the cooperation proposals coming from the Sfatul Țării and the regional Board of General Directors (ministers).<sup data-fn="7868c046-1325-4280-a872-b6388377ca69" class="fn"><a href="#7868c046-1325-4280-a872-b6388377ca69" id="7868c046-1325-4280-a872-b6388377ca69-link">47</a></sup> At Stere’ insistence, Sinadino took on the role of a mediator between the <em>uprava</em> and the government, taking into account the new political circumstances. On 29 April 1918, he insisted before the city executive on changing the composition of the <em>uprava</em> to preserve regional autonomy and to avoid discrediting the idea of local administration. Sinadino’s effort remained in vain: “You can imagine what impression my words have made,” he later shared told Stere.<sup data-fn="b1074830-d396-48cc-a58d-e421c4b643e6" class="fn"><a href="#b1074830-d396-48cc-a58d-e421c4b643e6" id="b1074830-d396-48cc-a58d-e421c4b643e6-link">48</a></sup> On September 18, 1918, King Ferdinand issued the decree on the dissolution of Chișinău’s legislative and executive councils.<sup data-fn="80246f54-e794-4f14-9ad7-e00696ff1014" class="fn"><a href="#80246f54-e794-4f14-9ad7-e00696ff1014" id="80246f54-e794-4f14-9ad7-e00696ff1014-link">49</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">For the “Holy and Just Cause:” In Support of the Return to Bessarabia under Russia’s Protection </h2>



<p>Sinadino and other representatives of Bessarabia’s former elite hoped that under the new regime, they would regain economic and social privileges and participate in the administration of the region’s economic and social affairs. The abolishment of Bessarabia’s autonomous status on 12 December 1918, was the “last stroke.” Therefore, when the Peace Conference was launched in the French capital, he urged Alexander N. Krupenskii to go there,  “where a new world map is redesigned,” and represent Bessarabia’s interests to the victorious Allied Powers.<sup data-fn="63cfc286-fa3a-413f-8760-abc8c9d51764" class="fn"><a href="#63cfc286-fa3a-413f-8760-abc8c9d51764" id="63cfc286-fa3a-413f-8760-abc8c9d51764-link">50</a></sup></p>



<p>In the spring of 1918, a group of Bessarabian émigrés led by Alexander N. Krupenskii had founded the Committee for the Liberation of Bessarabia in Odessa. The committee contacted the Russian political émigrés in Paris, who advised them to send a “Bessarabian delegation” to the peace conference.<sup data-fn="71d7cbb7-0c0e-40e1-8490-db1365601d87" class="fn"><a href="#71d7cbb7-0c0e-40e1-8490-db1365601d87" id="71d7cbb7-0c0e-40e1-8490-db1365601d87-link">51</a></sup> On 10 April 1919, a “Bessarabian delegation” was created in Odessa, to obtain from the international conference the “liberation” of Bessarabia from Romania and a free expression of the “will” of the Bessarabian inhabitants through a plebiscite.<sup data-fn="3923ae27-9f16-417e-8553-e2dedac97ca4" class="fn"><a href="#3923ae27-9f16-417e-8553-e2dedac97ca4" id="3923ae27-9f16-417e-8553-e2dedac97ca4-link">52</a></sup> Another aim of the “delegation” was to counterbalance the activity of the Romanian delegation at the conference, which argued for the recognition of Bessarabia as a Romanian territory. The activity of the “delegation” was part of the “Russian cause” (<em>Russkoe delo</em>) – the campaign led by the Russian political émigrés and ambassadors, mandated by the Kolchak government to negotiate with the Allied Powers anti-Bolshevik military support and possible restoration of Russia’s pre-war western borders. Members of the “Bessarabian delegation”, besides Alexander N. Krupenskii, who acted as its president, were the former mayor of Chișinău, Alexander K. Schmidt, the former director of imperial theatres in St. Petersburg, Alexander D. Krupenskii, a relative of A.N. Krupenkii, and a former Sfatul Țării deputy, Vladimir V. Tsyganko.<sup data-fn="6deec8e9-82a1-4bd4-90c5-fd9916717d83" class="fn"><a href="#6deec8e9-82a1-4bd4-90c5-fd9916717d83" id="6deec8e9-82a1-4bd4-90c5-fd9916717d83-link">53</a></sup> Sinadino’s name also figured among the potential “delegates” on behalf of Bessarabia; others – from left-wing organisations and the Jewish minority – were expected to join. According to Sinadino’s notes, he never left for Paris and never intended to do so. In his letters to Krupenskii, Sinadino complained about his poor physical state, emphasising that his presence in Chișinău was much more helpful than his eventual stay in the French capital. Sinadino considered that having “a set of mandates and working together, being aware that you act for a unique holy and just cause!” was crucial for the success of the latter.<sup data-fn="3c125ba3-8562-4a34-8bc6-49c9d3b76ade" class="fn"><a href="#3c125ba3-8562-4a34-8bc6-49c9d3b76ade" id="3c125ba3-8562-4a34-8bc6-49c9d3b76ade-link">54</a></sup></p>



<p>In contrast to Alexander N. Krupenskii, Sinadino, remained anonymous outside the country, although he was well-known in Bessarabia, proving very useful inside the region as Krupenskii’s main informant on the Bessarabian affairs. Sinadino wrote detailed letters, sometimes five times a day<sup data-fn="e722388e-bc7f-4f66-a122-b01169278542" class="fn"><a href="#e722388e-bc7f-4f66-a122-b01169278542" id="e722388e-bc7f-4f66-a122-b01169278542-link">55</a></sup> – informing Krupenskii in Paris about the political, economic and social state of affairs inside the region. Due to strict censorship, to send a letter to Paris, Sinadino travelled to Bucharest in search of opportunities to send letters or a parcel with documents which contained “everything that can be of interest to the larger public on the Bessarabian question,” so that one would have “a clear picture of our life, our rights and our situation!”<sup data-fn="962084a3-ac71-48e1-8102-95dd30f4c201" class="fn"><a href="#962084a3-ac71-48e1-8102-95dd30f4c201" id="962084a3-ac71-48e1-8102-95dd30f4c201-link">56</a></sup> Krupenskii used the detailed information to draft memoranda and protests, as well as to publish newspaper articles in various newspapers in which he criticized the Romanian regime and expressed the “will” of the inhabitants of Bessarabia to merge with Russia. </p>



<p>In his letters, Sinadino wrote that the Bessarabians followed the political debate in Romania; nevertheless, “this fight leaves everyone with indifference, for these parties are disgusting to us, but it’s still good that these gentlemen are fighting and in [illegible word] polemic they say little truth about each other!”<sup data-fn="bcb8495d-c9ab-492e-8f8b-80b2d5b35ef2" class="fn"><a href="#bcb8495d-c9ab-492e-8f8b-80b2d5b35ef2" id="bcb8495d-c9ab-492e-8f8b-80b2d5b35ef2-link">57</a></sup> He criticised Romanian propaganda for its excessive emphasis on saving the region from the Bolsheviks, but at the same time, he described the dangerous and destructive facets of Bolshevism. The landowner acknowledged that with the region’s union with Romania, the Bolshevik danger was eliminated. At the same time, he characterized the agrarian politics of the Sfatul Țării as “revolutionary” and “leftist.” For instance, the so-called “agrarian commissions” (<em>comisiile celor trei</em> – Ro.), endowed by Sfatul Țării with first expropriation activities, were qualified as a “troika of former Bolsheviks – villagers of reprehensible repute, prisoners of war and other bastards.”<sup data-fn="cfd41356-0250-4420-9e52-2f2074391431" class="fn"><a href="#cfd41356-0250-4420-9e52-2f2074391431" id="cfd41356-0250-4420-9e52-2f2074391431-link">58</a></sup> The occupation of Odessa by the Bolsheviks in April 1919 also gave severe cause for concern.<sup data-fn="41f26193-ba89-4ac3-a2d8-032b2a64086d" class="fn"><a href="#41f26193-ba89-4ac3-a2d8-032b2a64086d" id="41f26193-ba89-4ac3-a2d8-032b2a64086d-link">59</a></sup></p>



<p>Sinadino also criticised the administrative changes the Romanians initiated inside Bessarabia. He claimed that the dissolution of the gubernia’s zemstvo and the Chișinău executive council were “pushed through” by the Romanians without reaching a compromise with the locals; Sinadino himself attempted to mediate between the Chisinau city council and the Romanian government, but to no avail. He wrote that the Romanians ignored regional peculiarities familiar only to the former elite, and that the cooperation and support of the latter were not sought.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In his letters, Sinadino praised those Bessarabians who, one way or another, expressed criticism of the Romanian regime. He reported that a group numbering thirteen former Sfatul Țării deputies doubted the rightfulness of the union and expressed their readiness to withdraw their signatures from the declaration of 9 April.<sup data-fn="93aa457f-319d-45ae-945f-c1e7cd906514" class="fn"><a href="#93aa457f-319d-45ae-945f-c1e7cd906514" id="93aa457f-319d-45ae-945f-c1e7cd906514-link">60</a></sup> The refusal of certain groups of teachers and lawyers to take the oath to the king was qualified as resistance to the “temptation” to serve the new regime, despite the daily struggle with the lack of resources; nevertheless, he admitted that the resistance was not for free, and asked the Bessarabian émigrés for money to support the former public employees: </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>It is getting harder, and the ranks are beginning to thin out! We need a living word, we need moral support, to keep us alive and to support us, after all, temptations are incredible, and heroes are few! The Romanians [illegible word] caught, all their henchmen are bought with money, but our faithful people are hungry and are selling the last pieces of furniture and their white linen! If possible, send money for the former employees, thousands of them are starving. And yet we stand, we still live.<sup data-fn="cbf06520-486a-4d5a-b97a-78660e23288b" class="fn"><a href="#cbf06520-486a-4d5a-b97a-78660e23288b" id="cbf06520-486a-4d5a-b97a-78660e23288b-link">61</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>The documents and testimonies he collected in this regard were valued in Paris, being used by Bessarabian “delegates” as proof of the “abusive instalment” of the Romanian regime contrary to the “people’s will.”&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Sinadino repeatedly expressed worries about the situation on the anti-Bolshevik front and the way it could influence the situation inside the region, as well as about the solving of the Bessarabian “question” in Paris. Despite the fact that the news of such events as the advancement of the Volunteer Army in Southern Ukraine or the advancement of the Romanian Army towards Budapest always reached Bessarabia late, these were commented on by Sinadino as developments that required a swift adjustment of agenda by the Bessarabian “delegation” in Paris. Sinadino formulated concrete suggestions on the main directions of activity of the “Bessarabian delegation” before it was even officially set up. For instance, in a letter to Krupenskii of 12 January 1919, Sinadino suggested that the “delegation” request from the peace conference that an international commission be sent to Bessarabia, “to whom everything will be said if immunity is guaranteed; therefore, the presence of the representatives of France, America, England – of their consuls – is necessary.”<sup data-fn="0e0bf93c-3d87-4258-91f3-aa4ca6ebe4f4" class="fn"><a href="#0e0bf93c-3d87-4258-91f3-aa4ca6ebe4f4" id="0e0bf93c-3d87-4258-91f3-aa4ca6ebe4f4-link">62</a></sup> Another suggestion was to invite the Greek troops to establish order in the region with the approval of the Allied Powers: “If the Romanians have to leave here, we would not be upset, so we need to regulate this and order the Greek troops to be sent to Chișinău.”<sup data-fn="4f302d23-23cb-4b01-99a0-04935ad69171" class="fn"><a href="#4f302d23-23cb-4b01-99a0-04935ad69171" id="4f302d23-23cb-4b01-99a0-04935ad69171-link">63</a></sup></p>



<p>Sinadino disagreed categorically with the abolishment of Bessarabia’s autonomy inside Romania, sealed on 9 April, considering that the Sfatul Țării had reneged six months later under pressured circumstances.<sup data-fn="a0d083c8-9c5f-42a5-bb66-6d2000c60c78" class="fn"><a href="#a0d083c8-9c5f-42a5-bb66-6d2000c60c78" id="a0d083c8-9c5f-42a5-bb66-6d2000c60c78-link">64</a></sup> Since the conference did not give its verdict about the fate of Bessarabia, the Romanian parliamentary elections and the implementation of the agrarian reform were to be stopped, he wrote.<sup data-fn="8511ba16-ca66-41ec-bc02-85f6ae765bc1" class="fn"><a href="#8511ba16-ca66-41ec-bc02-85f6ae765bc1" id="8511ba16-ca66-41ec-bc02-85f6ae765bc1-link">65</a></sup> He supported the idea, fiercely advocated by the “Bessarabian delegation” in Paris and other European capitals, that only a plebiscite could clarify the region’s status, and that the local inhabitants would express their will to leave Romania and return to Russia. Since the Great Powers expected that a democratic regime would be installed in the Russian Federative Republic, the “delegation” preferred to avoid indicating what kind of regime was preferred in Russia.  </p>



<p>Other topics of correspondence were the activity of the Romanian delegation in Paris, the Great Powers’ stance on various territorial questions, questions such as where to find the money for propaganda, and how to intensify anti-Romanian propaganda at home. Another topic of discussion was the situation inside Ukraine: “The riots in Ukraine have greatly cheered up the Romanians here and have a depressing effect on us; when these stupid people will realize that they are pushing Russia into the abyss!”<sup data-fn="5683b88d-47d3-41f8-86c2-0829b4a467a1" class="fn"><a href="#5683b88d-47d3-41f8-86c2-0829b4a467a1" id="5683b88d-47d3-41f8-86c2-0829b4a467a1-link">66</a></sup></p>



<p>Sinadino described the economic disaster in the region in detail, complaining that the Romanians were doing little to stop the deterioration of infrastructure, regulate inflation, and control the rising prices for grain and everyday products. The lack of these and the high prices were a new dramatic experience; comparing the situation with the enjoyable everyday life in the Russian Empire added even more drama. Another aspect that deeply concerned Sinadino was the institution of censorship in the region:&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Now, in fact, we have a total terror, everything is closed and all nailed down [underl. in text]; newspapers are silent, because of the censorship that never existed before – even the speeches of the highest French authorities, like that of Clemenceau on Russia, are banned, the newspapers publish only what is permitted, or what and how they have been ordered to write; there were cases of the rulers ordering placing an article and information about their activities, then these articles and newspapers are placed where necessary, as a confirmation of their useful care. Nobody can say anything directly because the army of agents and spies will transmit further; they spare no expense, buying as much as they can, and whom they can. No public meetings, or even plays or charitable events, are allowed; today, the Assembly of the Nobility is closed – our club and all other clubs because they consider them the source of all the false rumours about Romania.<sup data-fn="b749c25f-8e47-4752-8a31-d2643b5dc85d" class="fn"><a href="#b749c25f-8e47-4752-8a31-d2643b5dc85d" id="b749c25f-8e47-4752-8a31-d2643b5dc85d-link">67</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>Those who initially saw the union as only a rational decision then became unhappy with the political, social and economic changes that did not correspond to the promises made by the Romanian government to landowners. On the other hand, the perspectives imagined by the former elite did not coincide with the reality that the Romanian state was able to construct. They hoped that one day life would return to “normality.” From Sinadino’s reflections, one can conclude that it was precisely Krupenskii’s letters from Paris<sup data-fn="5adfc9a6-c85e-43e1-9b17-9cf116a72a1b" class="fn"><a href="#5adfc9a6-c85e-43e1-9b17-9cf116a72a1b" id="5adfc9a6-c85e-43e1-9b17-9cf116a72a1b-link">68</a></sup> with details on the “Bessarabian cause” that lit the flame of hope for Sinadino and others who believed that the restoration of “Greater Russia” was possible. Nevertheless, “normality” belonged to the future, but one needed to live in the present. The entrepreneurial attempts of Sinadino during the transition shows that he was in search of ways to adapt to the new life and benefit from new economic conditions. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">An Entrepreneur: Founding a Sugar Factory Society in Northern Bessarabia </h2>



<p>Sinadino’s critical positioning towards the Romanian regime did not impede him from planning to found a business enterprise inside Bessarabia. Among his business partners were none other than Alexander N. Krupenskii and his uncle, Pavel N. Krupenskii. On 29 August 1918, Sinadino wrote to Alexander N. Krupenskii, who was then in Odessa, proposing that they set up their joint company, the Sugar Factory Society (<em>Obschestvo Sakharnogo Zavoda</em>). That was precisely the reason why Krupenskii left with Sinadino a consistent sum of money, which the latter administered in the following manner: of a total of 160,000 lei exchanged from roubles, 5,000 lei were deposited in the account of the society on behalf of A. N. Krupenskii. Apparently, the latter agreed to initially contribute to the statutory capital of the society with 50,000 lei.<sup data-fn="f17a70c9-13a9-48ad-8d57-2d4bc64d1d90" class="fn"><a href="#f17a70c9-13a9-48ad-8d57-2d4bc64d1d90" id="f17a70c9-13a9-48ad-8d57-2d4bc64d1d90-link">69</a></sup></p>



<p>Sinadino planned to request from the Romanian authorities the approval of the Sugar Factory Society with a statutory capital of 10 million lei. The publication of the company’s statute by the District Court in Romania needed to be speeded up. He wrote to Krupenskii that to start the business, a sum of around 15–16 million lei was necessary. By the end of August, the joint capital was “about three million lei,” which made securing the opening of the first plant near Târnova train station in northern Bessarabia a difficult one. “There are frantic rates, this is a beet region,” wrote Sinadino.<sup data-fn="f7fd5cd4-2e4e-48be-9263-cf786e77e64a" class="fn"><a href="#f7fd5cd4-2e4e-48be-9263-cf786e77e64a" id="f7fd5cd4-2e4e-48be-9263-cf786e77e64a-link">70</a></sup> Two more plants outside Bessarabia were also planned. Meanwhile, he considered the state of affairs inside Bessarabia being unfavourable to the development of a business, since there was </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>no order, there is no goal and no system of control, and all streets are one-sided: there is need for [road] construction in this Romanian region. I just cannot understand what has actually been achieved by this system? It is very difficult to get used to this situation! Whether all this will come to an end – I do not know! In fact, I do not even want to know, since all of this is just extremely annoying and disgusting.<sup data-fn="70f81aec-8711-468d-ab6a-fb15043af65f" class="fn"><a href="#70f81aec-8711-468d-ab6a-fb15043af65f" id="70f81aec-8711-468d-ab6a-fb15043af65f-link">71</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>In the spring of 1918, after the region merged with Romania, the planning of the joint enterprise continued. In the early January of 1919, the sum of 2,000 lei was paid into the account of the future sugar factory by Alexander D. Krupenskii on behalf of A. N. Krupenskii.<sup data-fn="6e9417df-d009-487d-beee-233c9fd66926" class="fn"><a href="#6e9417df-d009-487d-beee-233c9fd66926" id="6e9417df-d009-487d-beee-233c9fd66926-link">72</a></sup> By the time of Krupenskii’s modest investment, 30 percent of the sum (six million lei) had been deposited into the account of the National Bank, which was supposed to lend another six million lei. Sinadino’s letters to Krupenskii were full of worries about due rates; he also enquired about Krupenskii’s next payment.<sup data-fn="779d1d4d-e601-4ce3-8362-52296f80f364" class="fn"><a href="#779d1d4d-e601-4ce3-8362-52296f80f364" id="779d1d4d-e601-4ce3-8362-52296f80f364-link">73</a></sup> In February 1919, Alexander N. Krupenskii decided to sell his share and leave the business.<sup data-fn="363477e5-0069-4a51-916e-b9a1f71a6635" class="fn"><a href="#363477e5-0069-4a51-916e-b9a1f71a6635" id="363477e5-0069-4a51-916e-b9a1f71a6635-link">74</a></sup> The fate of the sugar enterprise remains unknown. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A Post-imperial Subject in Search of (New) Self-identification </h2>



<p>According to Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, “self- and other-identification are fundamentally situational and contextual.”<sup data-fn="e9d012da-621f-480a-ab40-57d9cb33948c" class="fn"><a href="#e9d012da-621f-480a-ab40-57d9cb33948c" id="e9d012da-621f-480a-ab40-57d9cb33948c-link">75</a></sup> Sinadino’s letters to Krupenskii prove this statement by showing the author’s embracing a relational mode of identification in which kinship, friendship and other forms of relationships played an important role. Sinadino shared his profound and moving solidarity with those who after the collapse of the Russian Empire were frustrated and disappointed with the deprivation of their prosperous life and the loss of a leading social and economic role in the region:  </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Costs are hyperbolic; prices are rising every week, and you cannot see the end of this misfortune! We become poorer every day, and it is a terrible feeling when you think that not so long ago we were people with a certain income.<sup data-fn="675d0cec-94e0-410a-a061-bfa6d349ae22" class="fn"><a href="#675d0cec-94e0-410a-a061-bfa6d349ae22" id="675d0cec-94e0-410a-a061-bfa6d349ae22-link">76</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>Despite the daily difficulties and restraints and his poor health, Sinadino rather lamented the situation faced by those formerly employed in Russian public service than his own. “Everything has been redesigned as in Romania, which, however, only exists on paper.” The postal service was still dysfunctional, and while the courts were in place, “nobody undertook legal action since justice could not be expected.”<sup data-fn="ce5600d7-3d51-4b5e-a0e8-3ac9e88c8f62" class="fn"><a href="#ce5600d7-3d51-4b5e-a0e8-3ac9e88c8f62" id="ce5600d7-3d51-4b5e-a0e8-3ac9e88c8f62-link">77</a></sup></p>



<p>To motivate former public officials to reject job offers from the Romanian state, Krupenskii was asked to mediate some funds from Admiral Kolchak as a temporary solution for those in need.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Sinadino blamed the new regional elite who brought the revolution to the Russian periphery and who later agreed to collaborate with the Romanians for destroying the region and making it alien. Although Sinadino remained in the region, unlike Krupenskii, who emigrated, it was another Bessarabia he identified with – the region in which he was born and lived before the Russian Revolution of 1917. Sinadino’s letters point out his loss of the place of his family roots, and the loss of Bessarabia as part of “Greater Russia.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>During the spring of 1918, the representatives of the former elite hoped to gain the full support of the Romanian authorities for the preservation of their estates and to play a role in the administrative life of the region. The primary sources indicate the readiness of the “old” elite to transfer their loyalty to the Romanian king. During the summer and autumn of 1918, when the disappointment from the implemented agrarian reforms grew, their readiness, although fragile, was replaced by indignation, repulsion, and even hatred concerning the Romanian authorities. The once acclaimed “liberation” from the Bolsheviks was forgotten; every measure of the Romanians in the region was criticised, and they were blamed for the disastrous economic and social situation. In such a confused state of mind, references to the past were often made and a sense of belonging to the Russian space was awakened.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>For Sinadino, who was of Greek origin, it was the Russian imperial identity he related to. Longing for Russia and “Russianness” was synonymous with preserving the connection with the lost Motherland and resisting the Romanian regime and Romanianisation:&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>You cannot imagine how hard life is here for these little but honest Russian people who have remained faithful to their homeland but are deprived of all means of livelihood and even of shelter! When will the torments of these people end?! […] Repressions multiply and grow, all that is Russian is godlessly persecuted and eradicated, so that nothing resembles this hateful word “Russia,” of which they are all afraid, like of a fire.<sup data-fn="acf4d1c4-0624-458f-8d26-50c70f8fa4e9" class="fn"><a href="#acf4d1c4-0624-458f-8d26-50c70f8fa4e9" id="acf4d1c4-0624-458f-8d26-50c70f8fa4e9-link">78</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>He described how under the new regime “everything that was Russian, even a hint towards what is Russian, is punished cruelly and shamelessly,” and those who identified with Russia suffered. He thus called for “immediate [underl. in text] measures to protect “Russian people by name and in the soul” from the arbitrariness of the Romanian authorities. “In such a situation, it is simply incomprehensible how the Russian spirit still survives and how people do not give up, and still believe in the coming of justice and law.”<sup data-fn="daf8275b-c104-4c08-8871-6f633509bfde" class="fn"><a href="#daf8275b-c104-4c08-8871-6f633509bfde" id="daf8275b-c104-4c08-8871-6f633509bfde-link">79</a></sup></p>



<p>Pantelimon V. Sinadino’s multiple facets of self-identification were revealed in different settings and under different circumstances. In a time of great distress, one needed to be flexible, adjust quickly to various political settings, and negotiate new roles. When the agrarian issue was at stake, Sinadino identified as a “landowner.” When it came to discussing the situation of minorities within Greater Romania, he associated himself with the many “Russians” who felt marginalised under the new regime. His pleas to stop economic disaster were formulated on behalf of the “wealthy.” Sinadino’s situational identification as being of Greek origin was emphasised when he asked the Greek diplomatic representative in Iaşi to intervene with the Romanian government to secure the status of estates belonging to St. Mount Athos and other Greek monasteries and the private estates belonging to the Greek landowners.<sup data-fn="9fe59530-2c37-460e-bfb3-f21a0fa6b500" class="fn"><a href="#9fe59530-2c37-460e-bfb3-f21a0fa6b500" id="9fe59530-2c37-460e-bfb3-f21a0fa6b500-link">80</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Against the Bessarabian “Workers”?!: the 1940 Soviet Police Interrogation </h2>



<p>Sinadino’s case proves a rare opportunity to cross-check the information on his political alignment and activity after World War I with his NKVD interrogation file of August 1940.<sup data-fn="fa658acb-473f-43cc-b819-b734cb79f410" class="fn"><a href="#fa658acb-473f-43cc-b819-b734cb79f410" id="fa658acb-473f-43cc-b819-b734cb79f410-link">81</a></sup> During interrogation, he admitted that  </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>as an active member of the Sfatul Țării on behalf of the Greek minority, as president of the Union of Large Landowners, I have indeed directed my activity towards the fight against the revolutionaries, the Bolsheviks, and towards escape from the revolution. With this aim, I insisted on the separation of Bessarabia from Soviet Russia and on its forceful union with Romania, I therefore plead guilty before the workers of Bessarabia and Soviet power.<sup data-fn="959e0e7b-a861-4aab-a43c-d5a7562a1850" class="fn"><a href="#959e0e7b-a861-4aab-a43c-d5a7562a1850" id="959e0e7b-a861-4aab-a43c-d5a7562a1850-link">82</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>At the same time, he stated that the regional diet, the Sfatul Țării, composed of former deserters from the Russian army on the Romanian front,<sup data-fn="40d88876-aaa0-4f2f-bd08-6fb8c84ae778" class="fn"><a href="#40d88876-aaa0-4f2f-bd08-6fb8c84ae778" id="40d88876-aaa0-4f2f-bd08-6fb8c84ae778-link">83</a></sup> was an “adventurous” and “anarchist” body. The Sfatul Țării was to be considered solely responsible for the “forceful union,” which was contrary to the “people’s will.” The landowners’ “considerable role” in the process was dictated by the specific circumstances instead: in Romania “it was accepted to recognise that we were also not against.”<sup data-fn="aebaa912-f75d-4b55-85a8-b15f4d768533" class="fn"><a href="#aebaa912-f75d-4b55-85a8-b15f4d768533" id="aebaa912-f75d-4b55-85a8-b15f4d768533-link">84</a></sup></p>



<p>Sinadino stated that from 1917 to 1918 he had not joined any political party or movement, but nevertheless, as a landowner, he exposed his political opinion in the March 1918 address to the king, and thus “contributed to the shameful transfer of Bessarabia into the hands of the Romanian occupiers.”<sup data-fn="febd5c33-d4a0-4ec0-aea6-1ef7499230ea" class="fn"><a href="#febd5c33-d4a0-4ec0-aea6-1ef7499230ea" id="febd5c33-d4a0-4ec0-aea6-1ef7499230ea-link">85</a></sup> In the landowners’ memoranda addressed to the king and the prime minister, the Statul Țării was indeed described as “revolutionary,”<sup data-fn="fccc691a-ede7-4274-b61b-26dbe06c4634" class="fn"><a href="#fccc691a-ede7-4274-b61b-26dbe06c4634" id="fccc691a-ede7-4274-b61b-26dbe06c4634-link">86</a></sup> with the aim of persuading the Romanian authorities to “suppress” the Bolsheviks’ attempt to seize power in Bessarabia and push for the union of the region with Romania. In such a way, the redistribution of land among the peasants, launched by the Statul Țării, was to be stopped. Sinadino admitted that, at a later stage, he became a member of the National Liberal Party, which supported the position of the “bourgeoisie” and would guarantee the status of the “prosperous class.” It was obvious for Sinadino, but not for the Soviet regime, that “living in a bourgeois state, being a representative of the bourgeoisie, [he] had to fight against any attempt to change the existing regime.”<sup data-fn="4b93b5d0-4c2a-467d-a9da-fddfd616eb92" class="fn"><a href="#4b93b5d0-4c2a-467d-a9da-fddfd616eb92" id="4b93b5d0-4c2a-467d-a9da-fddfd616eb92-link">87</a></sup></p>



<p>Sinadino was accused of “counter-revolutionary activity” against the Bessarabian “workers” and the Communist Party. He did not deny the accusations but pleaded guilty instead. He had probably sensed that his fate had already been decided, the NKVD interrogation being a formality. According to the Moldovan historian Iurie Colesnic, it was Sinadino’s naivety that moved him to give sincere answers to formal questions. The annihilation of the Romanian politicians, public employees, and cultural activists involved in the “national construction” of interwar Romania and the establishment of the “bourgeois-inheriting Romanian regime” in Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina occurred immediately after the two regions were occupied by the Red Army in June 1940. The NKVD identified the presence in Bessarabia of&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>a significant number of anti-Soviet elements among the landowners, merchants, policemen, gendarmes, white guards, mayors, and refugees from the USSR, and other foreign social elements that were carrying out counter-revolutionary activity in collaboration with the Romanian secret service.<sup data-fn="0e7326c2-ac66-4330-a364-f08b25002490" class="fn"><a href="#0e7326c2-ac66-4330-a364-f08b25002490" id="0e7326c2-ac66-4330-a364-f08b25002490-link">88</a></sup> </p>
</blockquote>



<p>After their arrests, the “anti-Soviet elements” were subjected to interrogation, conducted by the State Political Directorate (GPU),<sup data-fn="b4cdbaef-04f1-4554-ac34-c0fc55bf446d" class="fn"><a href="#b4cdbaef-04f1-4554-ac34-c0fc55bf446d" id="b4cdbaef-04f1-4554-ac34-c0fc55bf446d-link">89</a></sup> and then “sent to places where nothing is known of their fate.”<sup data-fn="22587404-c75c-41c2-a448-de183f8d53b3" class="fn"><a href="#22587404-c75c-41c2-a448-de183f8d53b3" id="22587404-c75c-41c2-a448-de183f8d53b3-link">90</a></sup> Sinadino was one of many former members of the “bourgeoisie,” landowners and political leaders who fell victim to the Soviet machinery of repression.  </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusions</h2>



<p>The biography of the Bessarabian Pantelimon V. Sinadino falls into the category of individual stories, which are extremely important for challenging the official accounts of national (in this case Romanian and Moldovan) histories. Sinadino was a representative of the Bessarabian imperial elite, which experienced radical social change within the region during World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917. In his post-imperial biography, one encounters both continuity and change, comprised of both destructive and formative elements. In contrast with Romanian historiography, which has rather ignored the existence of the Russian “old” elite in the newly-acquired Bessarabia, and Moldovan historiography, which has concentrated on the representatives of the new regional elite who contributed to the union of Bessarabia with Romania&nbsp; (<em>făuritorii Marii Uniri</em> – Ro.), the findings of the present study point to an elite which did not “disappear” but continued to live and act while having ambiguous feelings of distress, fear, and insecurity and was in search of new benchmarks in&nbsp; life.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The dissolution of the Russian Empire meant the separation of Bessarabia from a well-established imperial political and geographical frame that offered security and protection, detachment from a power centre and the dismantling of institutional structures. The former elite was dispossessed, lost its political, administrative and social status, and was detached from the imperial customs. Living under major threat to their person and family in the summer and autumn of 1917 placed such individuals under extreme pressure. Almost overnight, they were disempowered by the new revolutionary elite. Under unique, often unpredictable circumstances, the former elite underwent psychological transformations characterised by feelings of uncertainty, vulnerability, fear, and loss. They mourned the loss of the empire while simultaneously searching for solutions for guaranteeing individual and group security. Romania was not yet present on the Bessarabians’ mental map; nevertheless, due to growing Bolshevik danger, they had to acknowledge that in these complex circumstances, it was only with the support of neighbouring Romania that the anarchy inside Bessarabia could be stopped.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Between a vanishing past and a very uncertain future, Sinadino self-identified in multiple ways. He was, simultaneously, an “imperial subject,” a “landowner,” “wealthy,” an “entrepreneur,” and a “politician,” and then a Greek. During the transition from the empire to the nation-state, ethnic origin did not seem very important; other types of self-identification facilitated the adaptation to the new social and political reality. Previously acquired social capital was used to build further contacts and relations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Due to his political vision that transcended the regional boundaries and the intense contact which extended to Rome, Paris and other European cities, Sinadino’s life path bore the characteristics of <em>transnational life</em>. In his correspondence to Krupenskii, it is nearly “impossible to segregate the public from the intimate, the economic from the cultural or the political from the personal.”<sup data-fn="7bfa9a6f-8a3e-4800-af69-5d2cf788312b" class="fn"><a href="#7bfa9a6f-8a3e-4800-af69-5d2cf788312b" id="7bfa9a6f-8a3e-4800-af69-5d2cf788312b-link">91</a></sup> His letters contained an abundance of diverse topics, from strategies for persuading policy-makers in Paris to arguments on the Russian character of Bessarabia, from the prices at the local market to a business plan to open a sugar factory, from observations on the depressed mood of the Bessarabians who served the Russian Empire to reflections on what Clemenceau and Wilson were up to in Paris. Sinadino’s reflections, profound or sporadic, alternated with strategic thoughts, occasionally rational and calculated or, at times, idealistic, and grand business plans, which remained mostly on paper, show the entire complexity of the transition, with its ambiguity, contradictions, and questioning.  </p>



<p>“I am very sorry that I have such terrible handwriting and that it is deteriorating further. I ask you to store my manuscripts, as all this will ever be useful for the history of Bessarabia,” Pantelimon V. Sinadino wrote to Alexander N. Krupenskii on 9 October 1918. Sinadino considered that his account could enrich future generations’ understanding of the complex times in which he was living. Indeed, his letters and notes present a unique perspective of an active participant in transition, as well as revealing the transformative power of the dramatic events on his personality, beliefs, and dreams.&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Svetlana Suveica</strong> is a historian of Eastern and Southeastern Europe who lectures at the University of Regensburg (venia legendi) and an associate researcher at the Leibniz-Institute for East and Southeast European Studies (IOS) in Regensburg.&nbsp; She graduated from the Moldova State University in Chisinau, obtained her doctorate from the “A.I. Cuza” University in Iași, Romania, and habilitated at the University of Regensburg. She has extensively published on World War I and the post-war transition, the interwar state-building in Eastern Europe, the World War II and the Holocaust and the post-Soviet social and political transformations with the focus on Bessarabia, Transnistria, and Moldova. Her latest monograph is entitled: Post-imperial Encounters. Transnational Designs of Bessarabia in Paris and Elsewhere, 1917–1922 (De Gruyter 2022).&nbsp;</p>


<ol class="wp-block-footnotes"><li id="5dbb73f5-1bc2-40d7-a15b-1ff3236b4462">Tim Buchen, Malte Rolf (eds.): Eliten im Vielvölkerreich. Imperiale Biographien in Russland und Österreich-Ungarn (1850–1918). Berlin, Boston 2015; Stephen M. Norris, Willard Sunderland (eds.): Russia&#8217;s People of Empire. Life Stories from Eurasia, 1500 to the Present. Bloomington 2012. On biographical approach as revealing experiences of mobility in imperial and colonial settings see also <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/author/von+Oppen%2C+Achim" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Achim von Oppen</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/author/Strickrodt%2C+Silke" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Silke Strickrodt</a>: <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/fich20/44/5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Introduction. Biographies Between Spheres of Empire</a>. In: <em>The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History</em> 44 (2016), pp. 717–729.  <a href="#5dbb73f5-1bc2-40d7-a15b-1ff3236b4462-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 1 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="74f4fa95-26f2-4607-a48c-ba3c1650dff7"> See Martin Aust, Benjamin Schenk (eds.): Imperial Subjects. Autobiographische Praxis in den Vielvölkerreichen der Romanovs, Habsburger und Osmanen im 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhundert. Cologne 2015. <a href="#74f4fa95-26f2-4607-a48c-ba3c1650dff7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 2 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="78afa9fd-fdfd-43e8-91f8-fc9d1c7c8fd2">Ian W. Campbell: Writing Imperial Lives. Biography, Autobiography, and Microhistory. In: Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 18 (2017) 1, pp. 151–165. <a href="#78afa9fd-fdfd-43e8-91f8-fc9d1c7c8fd2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 3 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="271b3a22-43e8-4958-87c2-131f6bfdde37">See Willard Sunderland: The Baron’s Cloak. A History of the Russian Empire in War and Revolution. Ithaca (NY) 2014; Barbara Henning: Narratives of the History of the Ottoman-Kurdish Bedirhani Family in Imperial and Post-Imperial Contexts. Continuities and Changes. Bamberg 2018.  <a href="#271b3a22-43e8-4958-87c2-131f6bfdde37-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 4 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8b82a0a6-a5e1-41d5-bb24-c593e83c54a6">On the worsening situation in Chișinău city due to the chaotic return of Russian soldiers through Bessarabia, see, Svetlana Suveica, Virgil Pîslariuc, Gorod Kishinev: Ot zapadnoi okrainy Rossiiskoi imperii k vostochnoi okraine Velikoi Rumynii [Chișinău: From the Western Borders of the Russian Empire to the Eastern Borders of Greater Romania]. In: Alexei Miller, Dmitrii Chernyi (eds.): Goroda imperii v gody Velikoi Voiny i revoliutsii. Sbornik statei [Cities of the Empire during the Great War and the Revolution. Collection of Studies]. Saint Petersburg 2017, pp. 370/409.  <a href="#8b82a0a6-a5e1-41d5-bb24-c593e83c54a6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 5 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a3178d98-0b55-4e95-9f33-e9ecbff56a9d">Dates in Old Style (O.S.) are indicated accordingly, otherwise, New Style. <a href="#a3178d98-0b55-4e95-9f33-e9ecbff56a9d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 6 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e0bd9807-474e-4663-98c1-328aceb7eac8">See Claudiu Topor, “Auf nach Rumänien!” Beligeranța germano-română 1916–1918 [“Auf nach Rumänien!” German-Romanian Belligerency 1916–1918]. Iași 2020. <a href="#e0bd9807-474e-4663-98c1-328aceb7eac8-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 7 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6bcd751a-c709-40cb-a1b9-78932315060e"> Sfatul Țării continued to act as a regional legislative diet in charge of solving the “agrarian question”, while the local “zemstvo” and city councils remained as local administrative bodies. Two representatives of the region entered the Romanian government, inhabitants elected their deputies to the Romanian parliament on the basis of a direct, equal, secret and universal ballot proportionate to the population, and civil liberties and minority rights were guaranteed. <a href="#6bcd751a-c709-40cb-a1b9-78932315060e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 8 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="444a3858-5678-4803-98ad-c857cea9e31a">See, at large, Ion Țurcanu: Unirea Basarabiei cu România 1918. Preludii, premise, realizări [The Union of Bessarabia with Romania 1918. Preludes, Premises, Achievements]. Chișinău 1998, pp. 165–187. <a href="#444a3858-5678-4803-98ad-c857cea9e31a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 9 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0d767030-15f2-416c-8028-1bb133b88b52">Lois Banner: Biography as History. In: American Historical Review 114 (2009) 3, pp. 580–581. <a href="#0d767030-15f2-416c-8028-1bb133b88b52-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 10 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d3090702-1176-492e-b403-152f527c77c7">On liminality as a concept, see Arnold van Gennep: The Rise of Passage. Chicago, London 1960; Victor W. Turner: The Ritual Process. Structure and Anti-Structure. Harmondworth 1969; Agnes Horvath, Bjorn Thomassen, Harald Wydra (eds.): Breaking Boundaries. Varieties of Liminality. New York 2015; Arpad Szacolczai: Liminality and Experience. Structuring Transitory Situations and Transformative Events. In: International Political Anthropology<em> </em>2 (2009) 1, pp. 141–172. <a href="#d3090702-1176-492e-b403-152f527c77c7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 11 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b55bcb6f-1aa2-4eb1-acb8-32f4bcb146a5">The Kishinevskii Kommercheskii Bank [Chișinău Comercial Bank] and the Bessarabskii Tavricheskii Zemelinyi Bank [Bessarabian Tavricheskii Zemelinyi Bank] in Chișinău, the Black Sea-Danube Shipping Company and the wine production and trading company Brati&#8217;a I. i V. Sinadino i Ko in Odessa. On commercial activity of the Sinadino family in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, see Valentin Tomuleț, Victoria Bivol: Reprezentanți ai elitei burgheze din Basarabia. Negustorul grec Pantelei Sinadino (anii ’30–’50 ai sec. al XIX-lea) [Representatives of the Bourgeois Elite in Bessarabia. The Greek Merchant Pantelei Sinadino (1830s–1850s)]. In: Tyragetia 7 (2013) 2, pp. 157–167.  <a href="#b55bcb6f-1aa2-4eb1-acb8-32f4bcb146a5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 12 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="64f2a89e-aede-4976-a2c3-142292c4ed23">Together with his brother Ivan, Victor built the Greek Church of St. Pantelimon in Chișinău. See Vladimir Tarnakin, Tatiana Solovieva: Bessarabskie istorii [The Bessarabian Stories]. Chișinău 2011, pp. 26–30. <a href="#64f2a89e-aede-4976-a2c3-142292c4ed23-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 13 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b4ca47b3-29f0-42b8-bf2d-cf9c757f873e">Svidetel’stvo, g. Tiflis, 13.10.1898, Agenția Națională a Arhivelor – Direcția Generală a Arhivei Naționale a Republicii Moldova [National Archive Agency – General Directorate of the National Archives of the Republic of Moldova], hereafter ANA–DGAN), fonds 88, inv. 2, d. 215, p. 5. <a href="#b4ca47b3-29f0-42b8-bf2d-cf9c757f873e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 14 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5632a82e-b521-4442-8aeb-713e75538b89">1 desiatina (Ru.) = 1,097 hectares. The land was located as follows: 316.12 desiatines in the village of Izbiște, 2,184 in Mihalașa, 130 in Susleni, 550 in Oniţcani in Orhei county, and 355,0786 deseatines in Hârjești, Chișinău county. See: Formuliarnyi spisok o sluzhbe Kishinevskogo Golovy, Kolezhskogo assessora Panteleimona Viktorovicha Sinadino [Record of service of the Mayor of Chișinău, counselor Panteleimon Victor Sinadino]. ANA-DGAN, fond 9 Bessarabskogo gubernskogo po zhemskim i gorodskim delam prisutstviia [Bessarabian city and town prosecutor&#8217;s office], inv. 2, d. 626.  <a href="#5632a82e-b521-4442-8aeb-713e75538b89-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 15 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="102a9956-fb1c-46b2-8b0d-bee67b98410e">P. Sinadino: Creditul în Basarabia [The Credit System in Bessarabia]. Chişinău 1929; P. Sinadino: Ce este necesar pentru însănătoșirea vieții economice în Basarabia [What Is Needed to Improve Economic Life in Bessarabia]. Chișinău 1930. Sinadino’s earlier publications were dedicated to city of Chișinău: P. Sinadino: Naş Kişinev [Our Chișinău] (1904–1906); P. Sinadino: Vospominaniia [Memoirs] (1911). A short bibliographical note of Sinadino’s publications can be found in: Colesnic: Generația unirii, p. 293.  <a href="#102a9956-fb1c-46b2-8b0d-bee67b98410e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 16 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e16f1ac3-03dc-4c15-9bc0-cbc30b2d7f4c">See: Steven J. Zipperstein: Pogrom. Kishinev and the Tilt of History. New York, London 2018. <a href="#e16f1ac3-03dc-4c15-9bc0-cbc30b2d7f4c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 17 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="06e05cbb-4141-4710-bea4-ac1269c6c4a0">On the political situation in the region around the 1905 revolution, see: Andrei Kusko, Viktor Taki (pri uchastii Olega Groma): Bessarabiia v sostave Rossiiskoi imperii [Bessarabia in the Russian Empire] (1812–1917).<em> </em>Moscow 2012, pp. 283–285; Rossiiskoe dvorianstvo v revoliutsii 1905 goda. “Besedy” gubernskikh predvoditelei [Russian nobility and the Revolution of 1905. „Talks“ of gubernatorial leaders], Sost. I. V. Lukianov, SpB 2017 (passim). <a href="#06e05cbb-4141-4710-bea4-ac1269c6c4a0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 18 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="bd9084e6-8b17-4623-8266-572819407b54">See: A. B. Nikolaev: Sinadino Panteleimon Viktorovich. In: Gossudarstvennaia Duma Rossiiskoi Imperii [The State Duma of the Russian Empire]. 1906–1917. Entsiklopediia v 2-kh tomakh [Encyclopaedia in two volumes]. Moscow 2008.  <a href="#bd9084e6-8b17-4623-8266-572819407b54-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 19 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b3a22453-a302-4344-813a-6c13b875d094">For example, Sinadino was among the initiators of the 1910 bill “On the improvement of public sanitation in Russia” (Gosudarsvennaia duma [The State Duma]. Sozyv 3-i. i3-ia. Prilozheniia k stenograficheskim otchetam, Sankt-Peterburg 1910, tom 1, no. 17, pp. 143–145) and the 1912 bill “On the designation of towns as special zemstvo units,” which aimed to ease the towns’ taxes and facilitate commercial activities (Gosudarsvennaia duma. Sozyv 4ij. Sessiia 1-ia. Prilozheniia k stenograficheskim otchetam, St. Petersburg 1913, tom 1, no. 22, p. 55).  <a href="#b3a22453-a302-4344-813a-6c13b875d094-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 20 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5601e852-f1a6-4c6b-b673-30bb3fd8b79a">Here, and elsewhere in the text, translated by the author. Protokol no. 1 zasedaniia Bessarabskogo Kraevogo Organa – Sfatul Țării, 21 noiabria 1917 g. [Countrz Council, 21<sup>st</sup> November 1917]. In: Ion Țurcanu (ed.): Sfatul Țării. Documente [Country Council. Documents], vol. 1, p. 109. <a href="#5601e852-f1a6-4c6b-b673-30bb3fd8b79a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 21 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="20ad65ed-9e33-402a-80bc-e15aa5d98954">General August von Mackensen was the military governor of the part of Romania (mostly Wallachia) occupied by the Central Powers in December 1916. <a href="#20ad65ed-9e33-402a-80bc-e15aa5d98954-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 22 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="af72b89f-682c-4ba0-a9b5-1a37f56a6368"> This detail was revealed by P. V. Sinadino after his arrest and his subsequent interrogation by the Soviet Secret Police on August 9<sup>th</sup> 1940. Arhiva Consiliului de Securitate a Republicii Moldova [Archive of the Security Council of the Republic of Moldova] (hereafter ASRM), d. 28653, Protokol doprosa obviniaemogo Sinadino Panteleimona Viktorovicha [Protocol of the prosecution of the accused Sinadino Panteleimon Viktorovich], 9.8.1940, pp. 113–114. Copies of the dossier were kindly offered by Dr. Igor Cașu. Excerpts from the interrogations were also published in: Iurie Colesnic: Basarabia necunoscută [Unknown Bessarabia]. Chișinău 2007, pp. 20–45.  <a href="#af72b89f-682c-4ba0-a9b5-1a37f56a6368-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 23 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="461f3b4b-f9ac-4f03-bb21-41e954f2278b">Based on an interview given by Sinadino to the newspaper <em>Basarabia</em>, Piatra Neamț, 29.6.1919. In: Iurie Colesnic, Generația Unirii [The Union’s Generation]. Chișinău, pp. 292–293. <a href="#461f3b4b-f9ac-4f03-bb21-41e954f2278b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 24 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5bb9e3fc-7548-454b-8628-c97d75299e33">After the union, the Russian “uezd” became the Romanian „județ”. <a href="#5bb9e3fc-7548-454b-8628-c97d75299e33-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 25 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e5fe651c-7bd3-4d8c-8568-bea37d30c81b">Rozdano chlenam Rumynskogo parlamenta v Kishineve 8–9 sentiabria 1918 goda ot imeni Soiuza Zemelʹnykh Sobstvennikov [Given to the members of the Romanian parliament in Chișinău on 8–9 September 1918 in the name of Soiuza Zemelʹnykh Sobstvennikov]. Hoover Institution Archives (hereafter HIA), Mikhail N. Girs papers, box 39, folder 39.8 Bessarabia, Conditions and Events, 1917–1918. <a href="#e5fe651c-7bd3-4d8c-8568-bea37d30c81b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 26 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="43337a34-0a95-4a30-ba21-79c02bbd2f93">ASRM, d. 28653, Protokol doprosa obviniaemogo Sinadino Panteleimona Viktorovicha [Protocol of the prosecution of the accused Sinadino Panteleimon Viktorovich], 9 August 1940, pp. 127–127v, pp. 129–130.  <a href="#43337a34-0a95-4a30-ba21-79c02bbd2f93-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 27 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="35d503d2-1cc5-4231-90e0-0cc5f561face">Ibid., 12 August 1940, p. 133. <a href="#35d503d2-1cc5-4231-90e0-0cc5f561face-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 28 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ea158dd0-9699-4f3b-b7a7-d61463e2e236">Iurie Colesnic’s inquiry at the Penza prison did not produce any results. <a href="#ea158dd0-9699-4f3b-b7a7-d61463e2e236-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 29 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3357ccf6-2445-4568-9a03-f2b6f47098fc">In this article, primary sources in the US, Moldovan, Russian and Romanian archives are consulted. <a href="#3357ccf6-2445-4568-9a03-f2b6f47098fc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 30 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1881e7d0-e694-4de4-ae5d-102acb2349d5">After rejecting the help of the newly created Moldovan cohorts, who were also involved in anarchy, the landowners turned to the cavalry militia for help, but without success. HIA, Vasilii A. Maklakov Papers, Box 19 Subject file, Folder 19.1 Bessarabia Military telegram, February 4, 1918. Obshchestvo Bessarabtsev [Bessarabia District]. <a href="#1881e7d0-e694-4de4-ae5d-102acb2349d5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 31 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="10ea14ee-7905-4d57-ad7f-519af311fbe0">Instrucția agrară către comitetele pământești [Agrarian instruction to land committees], ANA-DGAN, fond 1417, inv. 1, d. 6, p. 1–2.  <a href="#10ea14ee-7905-4d57-ad7f-519af311fbe0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 32 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4c41b4ec-889e-463f-af2a-f0b05cc8ee06">Duiliu Zamfirescu: În Basarabia [In Bassarabia], ed. by Ioan Adam. București 2012, pp. 63–64; here, a short biography of Sinadino, pp. 93–94. <a href="#4c41b4ec-889e-463f-af2a-f0b05cc8ee06-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 33 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7f57f215-3584-4b13-a30b-5016a9065bf1">Other members of the delegation were: N. Botezatul, Socrate Cavaliotti, Victor Scherer, Gheorghe Gonata and Alexandru Sinadino. See Memoriul cu cererea pentru unirea Uniunii proprietarilor agricoli din Basarabia. In: Ştefan Ciobanu, Unirea Basarabiei. Studiu şi documente cu privire la mişcarea naţională din Basarabia în anii 1917–1918 [Bessarabia’s Union. A Study with Documents on the National Movement in Bessarabia in the Years 1917–1918]. Chişinău 1993, pp. 253–254.  <a href="#7f57f215-3584-4b13-a30b-5016a9065bf1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 34 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8dfe90fd-b8d8-45d7-a5b8-bf6de95e4d8d">Din memoriul asupra stării în Basarabia, înaintat guvernului român de către Uniunea marilor proprietari din Basarabia, 10 martie 1918 [From the Memorandum on the Situation in Bessarabia, Submitted to the Romanian Government by the Union of Large Owners of Bessarabia, March 10, 1918]. In: Țurcanu, Unirea Basarabiei cu România, pp. 247–249. <a href="#8dfe90fd-b8d8-45d7-a5b8-bf6de95e4d8d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 35 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fc91f1f5-5358-4337-9b0a-1a4b4a7f7a44"> Beseda P.V. Sinadino. Marghiloman IV, HIA, Vasilii A. Maklakov Papers, Box 18, Folder 18.10 Bessarabia. Soiuz Zemel&#8217;nykh Sobstvennikov, p. 4. See Svetlana Suveica: Post-imperial Encounters. Transnational Designs of Bessarabia in Paris and Elsewhere, 1917–1922. Berlin, Boston 2022, pp. 154–155. <a href="#fc91f1f5-5358-4337-9b0a-1a4b4a7f7a44-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 36 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="23218ff9-35df-4890-8d46-2c7f4541ba1b">Ibid. <a href="#23218ff9-35df-4890-8d46-2c7f4541ba1b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 37 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f7d135fb-8ec5-41e3-b769-18352f0ae9f4">Ibid., pp. 11–12. <a href="#f7d135fb-8ec5-41e3-b769-18352f0ae9f4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 38 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a89100ea-c4f7-4c46-bd66-3643c11a645a">HIA, Vasilii A. Maklakov Papers, Box 18 Subject file, Folder 18.11. Bessarabia, Motivirovannaia zapiska ob otkaze ot uchastiia v Agrarnoi Kommissii Sf[atul] Ts[ării] [Memorandum on the refusal to participate in the Agrarian Commission of the State Council], 5.6.1918. Soiuz Zemelinykh Sovstvennikov. During the interrogation by the Soviet secret police on August 9, 1940, Sinadino confirmed his participation in the two sessions, claiming that the “provocative interventions” of the Romanian representative had served as a motive for ending cooperation. ASRM, d. 28653, Protokol doprosa obviniaemogo Sinadino Panteleimona Viktorovicha, 9.8.1940, p. 112.   <a href="#a89100ea-c4f7-4c46-bd66-3643c11a645a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 39 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b75834d4-4b41-4378-b172-7ce3d825e747">Beseda P.V. Sinadino. Marghiloman IV, HIA, Vasilii A. Maklakov Papers, p. 15. <a href="#b75834d4-4b41-4378-b172-7ce3d825e747-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 40 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="08dc8a3f-3d44-4ccd-b083-58eca66dc6f8">Ibid. <a href="#08dc8a3f-3d44-4ccd-b083-58eca66dc6f8-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 41 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8dfcb5fb-f264-47e1-83d3-cb085f8b0266">Alexander N. Krupenskii was a large landowner who belonged to an ancient Bessarabian family that was close to the tsar and held important regional and local duties. Krupenskii was a marshal of the Bessarabian nobility and a former president of the gubernial zemstvo.  <a href="#8dfcb5fb-f264-47e1-83d3-cb085f8b0266-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 42 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4052a2f3-8bee-453b-a60a-c9f2c07329ac">Between September 1918 and March 1920, P. V. Sinadino maintained intense correspondence with A. N. Krupenskii. Some twenty letters, written in Russian by Sinadino, form part of Alexander N. Krupenskii’s papers in the Hoover Institution Archives. <a href="#4052a2f3-8bee-453b-a60a-c9f2c07329ac-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 43 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e871eaff-abe1-47a1-8113-4f4ae893ebac">The agrarian bill for Bessarabia, voted by the Sfatul Țării during its last meeting of December 10, 1918, allowed each landowner a maximum 100 hectares of land (Proiectul legii de reformă agrară pentru Basarabia din 27 noiembrie 1918. In: Sfatul Țării, 30 November 1918; Legea de reformă agrară pentru Basarabia: In: Monitorul Oficial [The Official Gazette], no. 258, 13.3.1920). By way of comparison, in the Old Kingdom the land was expropriated on the basis of a progressive scale, a maximum possession of 500 hectares being allowed.  <a href="#e871eaff-abe1-47a1-8113-4f4ae893ebac-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 44 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3ba4f0a0-a4f0-4301-a987-53d9112b8d8e">P. V. Sinadino – A. N. Krupenskii, Kishinev, 12.1.1919, HIA, Alexander N. Krupenskii Papers, Box I, Folder Sinadino.  <a href="#3ba4f0a0-a4f0-4301-a987-53d9112b8d8e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 45 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c6351518-9b6a-4126-b26e-8abebf798518">Beseda, f. 18. <a href="#c6351518-9b6a-4126-b26e-8abebf798518-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 46 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7868c046-1325-4280-a872-b6388377ca69">Consiliul Directorilor Generali – Ro. The board, which was the executive of the Moldavian Democratic Republic, was dissolved on 12 December 1918, when the unconditional union of Bessarabia with Romania was approved by the Sfatul Țării. The directorates functioned, nevertheless, till 3 April 1920 (Decret-lege pentru desfiinţarea directoratelor din Basarabia, 3.4.1920.I In: Constantin Hamangiu, Codul general al României [General Code of Romania]. Vol. IX–X, 1919–1922, Legi uzuale. Bucureşti 1926, pp. 293–294.  <a href="#7868c046-1325-4280-a872-b6388377ca69-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 47 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b1074830-d396-48cc-a58d-e421c4b643e6">Beseda, f. 18–19. <a href="#b1074830-d396-48cc-a58d-e421c4b643e6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 48 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="80246f54-e794-4f14-9ad7-e00696ff1014"> Monitorul Oficial, no. 133, 5.9.1918, p. 2185.  <a href="#80246f54-e794-4f14-9ad7-e00696ff1014-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 49 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="63cfc286-fa3a-413f-8760-abc8c9d51764">P. V. Sinadino – A. N. Krupenskii, Kishinev, 12.1.1919.  <a href="#63cfc286-fa3a-413f-8760-abc8c9d51764-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 50 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="71d7cbb7-0c0e-40e1-8490-db1365601d87">According to a certificate, A. N. Krupenskii and A. K. Schmidt were “dispatched to Paris as couriers carrying documents and letters to the representative of Russia to the Peace Congress – Minister Serge Sazonov.” HIA, A. N. Krupenskii papers, Box 2 Subject file, Folder Krupenskii, A.N., Certificat, Odessa, 27.1.1919.  <a href="#71d7cbb7-0c0e-40e1-8490-db1365601d87-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 51 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3923ae27-9f16-417e-8553-e2dedac97ca4">HIA, Alexander N. Krupenskii Papers, Box II Subject File, 1918–1934, Folder Bessarabian commission of the Paris Peace Conference, Declaratsiia, Odessa, 10.2.1919. <a href="#3923ae27-9f16-417e-8553-e2dedac97ca4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 52 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6deec8e9-82a1-4bd4-90c5-fd9916717d83">On Tsyganko’s activity, see, at large, Svetlana Suveica: The Bessarabians “between” the Russians and the Romanians. The Case of the Peasant Party Deputy Vladimir V. Țsyganko (1917–1919). In: Sorin Radu, Oliver Jens Schmitt (eds.): Politics and Peasants in Interwar Romania. Perceptions, Mentalities, Propaganda. Newcastle upon Tyne 2017, pp. 215–250. <a href="#6deec8e9-82a1-4bd4-90c5-fd9916717d83-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 53 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3c125ba3-8562-4a34-8bc6-49c9d3b76ade">P. V. Sinadino – A. N. Krupenskii, Kishinev, 12.8.1919.  <a href="#3c125ba3-8562-4a34-8bc6-49c9d3b76ade-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 54 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e722388e-bc7f-4f66-a122-b01169278542">Ibid., 27.8.1919. “During the last period I wrote to you many times, I did not count previous letters, but on July 3 I wrote to you twice from Bucharest, then twice from Chișinău, and today I am writing for the fifth time, I do not know, what have you got? It is very difficult to keep correspondence.” <a href="#e722388e-bc7f-4f66-a122-b01169278542-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 55 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="962084a3-ac71-48e1-8102-95dd30f4c201">Ibid., 1.1.1920. <a href="#962084a3-ac71-48e1-8102-95dd30f4c201-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 56 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="bcb8495d-c9ab-492e-8f8b-80b2d5b35ef2">Ibid., 3.6.1919. <a href="#bcb8495d-c9ab-492e-8f8b-80b2d5b35ef2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 57 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cfd41356-0250-4420-9e52-2f2074391431">Ibid., Kishinev, 3.6.1919. <a href="#cfd41356-0250-4420-9e52-2f2074391431-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 58 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="41f26193-ba89-4ac3-a2d8-032b2a64086d"> Ibid., 22.4.1919. <a href="#41f26193-ba89-4ac3-a2d8-032b2a64086d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 59 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="93aa457f-319d-45ae-945f-c1e7cd906514"> Ibid., 28.10.1918. In fact, the deputies signed a memorandum demanding the re-establishment of regional autonomy, which most likely remained unanswered by the Romanian government. <a href="#93aa457f-319d-45ae-945f-c1e7cd906514-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 60 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cbf06520-486a-4d5a-b97a-78660e23288b">Apparently, money was requested numerous times from Kolchak with the mediation of Krupenskii; there is evidence that there was some financial support from Kolchak for the “Bessarabian delegation” in Paris, which, in turn, distributed some sources to Odessa and Chișinău. P. V. Sinadino – A. N. Krupenskii, Kishinev, 7.7.1919. <a href="#cbf06520-486a-4d5a-b97a-78660e23288b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 61 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0e0bf93c-3d87-4258-91f3-aa4ca6ebe4f4">Ibid. <a href="#0e0bf93c-3d87-4258-91f3-aa4ca6ebe4f4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 62 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4f302d23-23cb-4b01-99a0-04935ad69171"> Ibid., 5.6.1919. <a href="#4f302d23-23cb-4b01-99a0-04935ad69171-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 63 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a0d083c8-9c5f-42a5-bb66-6d2000c60c78">Instead, the opponents of the union criticized the lack of transparency to the decision that “destroyed autonomy”, with the effect that the Romanian government “got rid of the Sfatul Țării. The Bessarabian “Parliament”. A. N. Krupenskii Papers 1918–1936, Box III Speeches and Writings, 1919, Folder The Bessarabian “Parliament” (Sfatul Tzerii).  <a href="#a0d083c8-9c5f-42a5-bb66-6d2000c60c78-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 64 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8511ba16-ca66-41ec-bc02-85f6ae765bc1">P. V. Sinadino – A. N. Krupenskii, 12.1.1918. <a href="#8511ba16-ca66-41ec-bc02-85f6ae765bc1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 65 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5683b88d-47d3-41f8-86c2-0829b4a467a1"> Ibid., 23.11.1918. <a href="#5683b88d-47d3-41f8-86c2-0829b4a467a1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 66 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b749c25f-8e47-4752-8a31-d2643b5dc85d">P. V. Sinadino – A. N. Krupenskii, Kishinev, 12.1.1919. On the closure of the Assembly of the Nobility (Klub Blagorodnogo Sobraniia), see, Suveica, Pîslariuc, Gorod Kishinev: Ot zapadnoi okrainy Rossiiskoi imperii, pp. 395–398. <a href="#b749c25f-8e47-4752-8a31-d2643b5dc85d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 67 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5adfc9a6-c85e-43e1-9b17-9cf116a72a1b">No letters authored by Krupenskii were available to us. <a href="#5adfc9a6-c85e-43e1-9b17-9cf116a72a1b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 68 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f17a70c9-13a9-48ad-8d57-2d4bc64d1d90">When it came for money issue, Sinadino was very precise: 150,000 were bought at the exchange rate of 54.5; the other 10,000 at 55.5. P.V. Sinadino – A.N. Krupenskii, Kishinev, 29.8.1918. <a href="#f17a70c9-13a9-48ad-8d57-2d4bc64d1d90-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 69 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f7fd5cd4-2e4e-48be-9263-cf786e77e64a">Ibid. <a href="#f7fd5cd4-2e4e-48be-9263-cf786e77e64a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 70 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="70f81aec-8711-468d-ab6a-fb15043af65f">Ibid. <a href="#70f81aec-8711-468d-ab6a-fb15043af65f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 71 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6e9417df-d009-487d-beee-233c9fd66926">Alexander D. Krupenskii left for Paris as member of the “Bessarabian delegation” at a later stage. <a href="#6e9417df-d009-487d-beee-233c9fd66926-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 72 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="779d1d4d-e601-4ce3-8362-52296f80f364">P. V. Sinadino – A. N. Krupenskii, Kishinev, 19.12.1918. <a href="#779d1d4d-e601-4ce3-8362-52296f80f364-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 73 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="363477e5-0069-4a51-916e-b9a1f71a6635">Ibid., 26.2.1919. <a href="#363477e5-0069-4a51-916e-b9a1f71a6635-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 74 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e9d012da-621f-480a-ab40-57d9cb33948c">See Rogers Brubaker / Frederick Cooper, Beyond “identity.” Theory and Society 29 (2000), no. 1, pp.  <br>1–47, here 14.  <a href="#e9d012da-621f-480a-ab40-57d9cb33948c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 75 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="675d0cec-94e0-410a-a061-bfa6d349ae22">P.V. Sinadino – A.N. Krupenskii, Kishinev, 22.4.1919. <a href="#675d0cec-94e0-410a-a061-bfa6d349ae22-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 76 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ce5600d7-3d51-4b5e-a0e8-3ac9e88c8f62">Ibid., 12.8.1919. <a href="#ce5600d7-3d51-4b5e-a0e8-3ac9e88c8f62-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 77 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="acf4d1c4-0624-458f-8d26-50c70f8fa4e9">Ibid., 3.6.1919. <a href="#acf4d1c4-0624-458f-8d26-50c70f8fa4e9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 78 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="daf8275b-c104-4c08-8871-6f633509bfde"> Ibid. <a href="#daf8275b-c104-4c08-8871-6f633509bfde-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 79 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9fe59530-2c37-460e-bfb3-f21a0fa6b500">Ibid., 26.2.1919. <a href="#9fe59530-2c37-460e-bfb3-f21a0fa6b500-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 80 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fa658acb-473f-43cc-b819-b734cb79f410"> For a case study of Soviet repression of a former member of the Sfatul Țării, see: Igor Cașu: Dușmanul de clasă. Represiuni politice, violență și rezistență în R(A)SS Moldovenească, 1924–1956 [Class enemy. Political repression, violence and resistance in the Moldovan R(A)SS, 1924-1956]. Chișinău 2014, pp. 163–164. <a href="#fa658acb-473f-43cc-b819-b734cb79f410-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 81 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="959e0e7b-a861-4aab-a43c-d5a7562a1850">ASRM, d. 28653, Protokol doprosa obviniaemogo Sinadino Panteleimona Viktorovicha, 9.8.1940, f. 113.  <a href="#959e0e7b-a861-4aab-a43c-d5a7562a1850-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 82 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="40d88876-aaa0-4f2f-bd08-6fb8c84ae778">The Sfatul Țării’s “Moldovan basis” consolidated after Romanian troops entered and Constantin Stere arrived in the region, claimed Sinadino. <a href="#40d88876-aaa0-4f2f-bd08-6fb8c84ae778-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 83 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="aebaa912-f75d-4b55-85a8-b15f4d768533">Protokol doprosa, 9.8.1940, p. 111. <a href="#aebaa912-f75d-4b55-85a8-b15f4d768533-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 84 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="febd5c33-d4a0-4ec0-aea6-1ef7499230ea">Ibid., p. 108.  <a href="#febd5c33-d4a0-4ec0-aea6-1ef7499230ea-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 85 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fccc691a-ede7-4274-b61b-26dbe06c4634">The Sfatul Țării became radicalised towards the end of 1917. See Katja Lasch, Der Landesrat in Bessarabien: Ethnische Zusammensetzung, politischen Orientierung, Sozialisation und Bildungsstand der Abgeordneten, <em>Transylvanian Review</em>, XXI, no. 2 (Summer 2012): pp. 19–37. <a href="#fccc691a-ede7-4274-b61b-26dbe06c4634-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 86 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4b93b5d0-4c2a-467d-a9da-fddfd616eb92"> Protokol doprosa, 12.8.1940, f. 133. <a href="#4b93b5d0-4c2a-467d-a9da-fddfd616eb92-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 87 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0e7326c2-ac66-4330-a364-f08b25002490">The deportation plan for Bessarabia included 980 bourgeois party leaders, 137 landowners, 285 White Army officers, 83 tsarist army officers involved in “anti-Soviet activity”, 1948 traders, and 411 large landowners. See: Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sotsial&#8217;no-Politiceskoi Istorii [Russian State Archive o f Social and Political History] (further RGASPI), fond 573 Upolnomochennyi TsK VKP(b) i SNK SSSR po Moldavskoi SSR (1945–1950) [Commissioner of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (b) and the USSR Council of People&#8217;s Commissars for the Moldavian SSR (1945-1950)], inv. 1, d. 1, p. 77.  <a href="#0e7326c2-ac66-4330-a364-f08b25002490-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 88 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b4cdbaef-04f1-4554-ac34-c0fc55bf446d">Gosudarstvennoe Politicheskoe Upravlenie (Ru) [The State Political Directorate]. <a href="#b4cdbaef-04f1-4554-ac34-c0fc55bf446d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 89 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="22587404-c75c-41c2-a448-de183f8d53b3"> RGASPI, fond 573 Upolnomochennyi TsK VKP(b) i SNK SSSR po Moldavskoi SSR (1945–1950), inv. 1, d. 1, p. 76. <a href="#22587404-c75c-41c2-a448-de183f8d53b3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 90 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7bfa9a6f-8a3e-4800-af69-5d2cf788312b">Desley Deacon, Penny Russel, Angela Woolacott (eds.): Transnational Lives. Biographies of Global Modernity, 1700–Present. Basingstoke 2010, p. 5.  <a href="#7bfa9a6f-8a3e-4800-af69-5d2cf788312b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 91 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li></ol><p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/post-imperial-biographies-in-the-russian-romanian-borderlands-the-case-of-the-bessarabian-pantelimon-v-sinadinopost-imperial-biographies-in-the-russian-romanian-borderlands/">Post-Imperial Biographies in the Russian–Romanian Borderlands. The Case of the Bessarabian Pantelimon V. Sinadino </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<title>Alternatives to a Takeover of Power. Košice 1918–1919*</title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/alternatives-to-a-takeover-of-power-kosice-1918-1919/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 11:16:21 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Wissenschaft]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=829</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Attila Simon, Fórum Minority Research Institute in Šamorín (Somorja in Hungarian), Selye János University in Komárno (Komárom in Hungarian)  In the last year of World War I, there were several conflicting national scenarios for the transformation of the Central European region. In the space where eventually the Czecho-Slovak state was to be established, there were [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/alternatives-to-a-takeover-of-power-kosice-1918-1919/">Alternatives to a Takeover of Power. Košice 1918–1919*</a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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<p>Attila Simon, Fórum Minority Research Institute in Šamorín (Somorja in Hungarian), Selye János University in Komárno (Komárom in Hungarian) </p>



<p>In the last year of World War I, there were several conflicting national scenarios for the transformation of the Central European region. In the space where eventually the Czecho-Slovak state was to be established, there were at least three such visions, namely the Czech, the German-Austrian, and the Hungarian, in addition to the Slovak (which was not in complete harmony with the Prague plans), and various additional ideas for smaller regions. Of the rival schemes, the winner was clearly T. G. Masaryk’s Czech scenario, which basically aimed at restoring Czech statehood in a larger than earlier territory. One of the most significant elements of this idea was guaranteeing the historic Czech borders, which was such an important goal that, according to the renowned Czech historian Jan Galandauer, the Czechs would have been ready to give up their sovereignty for it.<sup data-fn="2ca4c5c4-0c8f-4d76-87ff-3b6597c8ad17" class="fn"><a href="#2ca4c5c4-0c8f-4d76-87ff-3b6597c8ad17" id="2ca4c5c4-0c8f-4d76-87ff-3b6597c8ad17-link">1</a></sup></p>



<p>Another vital pillar of the Masaryk scenario was obtaining the northern parts of historic Hungary inhabited by Slovaks, Hungarians, and Germans. For the Czech elites, that were dreading German dominance, this held the simultaneous promise of breaking out of being encircled by Germans and building a bridge towards the big Slavic brother, Russia. Not only was the Czech scheme in stark contrast to the German and Hungarian plans but to some extent it also disregarded the local ideas of the Slovak movement based in Turčiansky sv, Martin (Turócszentmárton in Hungarian, Turz-Sankt Martin in German) and of the Upper Hungarian regions that were later to become Slovakia.  </p>



<p>This paper examines the conflicts the Prague scenarios generated in the case of the town of Košice (in Hungarian Kassa) and introduces the alternative visions emerging in late 1918 and early 1919 concerning the future role and operation of this major regional centre.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Debates about Košice’s character </h2>



<p>In the Slovak-Hungarian historical and public discourse, Košice has always borne symbolic significance, as both parties have considered it their own.<sup data-fn="5ab0b039-1e40-466d-9e7c-fb41c78f9473" class="fn"><a href="#5ab0b039-1e40-466d-9e7c-fb41c78f9473" id="5ab0b039-1e40-466d-9e7c-fb41c78f9473-link">2</a></sup> This is partly because in the apparently contradictory series of data in 19th and 20th century censuses, both the Hungarian and the Slovak parties can find evidence to support their argument.   </p>



<figure class="wp-block-table"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td>Hungarians</td><td>Slovaks (Czecho-Slovaks) </td><td>Germans </td></tr><tr><td>1851</td><td>28.5</td><td>26.5</td><td>15.6</td></tr><tr><td>1880</td><td>39.8</td><td>40.9</td><td>16.7</td></tr><tr><td>1910</td><td>75.4</td><td>14.8</td><td>7.2</td></tr><tr><td>1921</td><td>21.2</td><td>59.7</td><td>6.0</td></tr><tr><td>1930</td><td>16.5</td><td>60.2</td><td>4.6</td></tr><tr><td>1938</td><td>76.6</td><td>16.3</td><td>4.0</td></tr><tr><td>1941</td><td>83.5</td><td>11.0</td><td>2.5</td></tr><tr><td>1950</td><td>2.6</td><td>93.5</td><td>0.04</td></tr><tr><td>2001</td><td>3.8</td><td>89.1</td><td>0.2</td></tr></tbody></table><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Table 1</em>: Percentages of the three main ethnic communities in Košice over the past two centuries<sup data-fn="739ec1e1-66e5-4d9c-8974-ee8501b326dd" class="fn"><a href="#739ec1e1-66e5-4d9c-8974-ee8501b326dd" id="739ec1e1-66e5-4d9c-8974-ee8501b326dd-link">3</a></sup></figcaption></figure>



<p>As Table 1 demonstrates, Košice, that had a considerable German majority in the Middle Ages, repeatedly went through major ethnic changes between 1851 and 1950, or at least this is what census data suggest. It is to be noted, however, that statistics do not necessarily mirror the actual changes in the town’s ethnic composition. As confirmed by Ondrej Ficerinek’s so-called situational identity research, whenever a census was taken, Košice citizens’ language competences enabled them to adjust their declared national identity to the current state law.<sup data-fn="785315bf-09c8-4bb4-8867-32694e4ed2da" class="fn"><a href="#785315bf-09c8-4bb4-8867-32694e4ed2da" id="785315bf-09c8-4bb4-8867-32694e4ed2da-link">4</a></sup></p>



<p>In this situation, it was the post-1945 forced transformation that led to a noticeable shift in the ethnic character of the region within Czechoslovakia that intended to build a purely Slavic nation state: not only was the decisive majority of Germans forced to leave, but every effort was taken to eliminate the Hungarian population in Slovakia by a population exchange imposed on Hungary, by deporting to Czechia Hungarians living in Slovakia, and also by their “Reslovakization”.<sup data-fn="fb7d9875-9ec3-424a-bec6-293111896c68" class="fn"><a href="#fb7d9875-9ec3-424a-bec6-293111896c68" id="fb7d9875-9ec3-424a-bec6-293111896c68-link">5</a></sup> Although this drive was not fully successful, the ethnic composition of Southern Slovakia underwent a major transformation, and the formerly multilingual town of Košice became primarily monolingual.<sup data-fn="87ea96ef-4706-45bf-a63a-4e6c599791bc" class="fn"><a href="#87ea96ef-4706-45bf-a63a-4e6c599791bc" id="87ea96ef-4706-45bf-a63a-4e6c599791bc-link">6</a></sup></p>



<p>Contemporary memoirs, diaries, and archival sources about Košice offer a more plastic image of the impact of the 1918-1920 state transformation than statistics, witnessing a town with strong Hungarian dominance. The man in the street would mostly speak Hungarian, and the larger part of citizens identified with the idea of Hungarian statehood. This image is confirmed by a Czechoslovak security report dating back to the time following the state formation: “Slovaks in Košice, whose mentality is completely Magyarised and have no national identity, are indifferent to the events of historic significance and do not at all understand their importance.”<sup data-fn="3b3195b7-772c-4fe8-9374-bf134ebcc49f" class="fn"><a href="#3b3195b7-772c-4fe8-9374-bf134ebcc49f" id="3b3195b7-772c-4fe8-9374-bf134ebcc49f-link">7</a></sup> Looking back, Anton Granatier, one of the leaders of the Slovak League, that in the interwar period supported the Slovakizaton of the territories inhabited by Hungarians, wrote in 1947: “thirty years ago Košice appeared to be as Hungarian as Budapest.”<sup data-fn="6cd8333c-7211-46e2-b6a2-1ce4f31fac0e" class="fn"><a href="#6cd8333c-7211-46e2-b6a2-1ce4f31fac0e" id="6cd8333c-7211-46e2-b6a2-1ce4f31fac0e-link">8</a></sup> Naturally, this image is confirmed by Hungarian sources as well, but it needs to be added that while Hungarians talk of a completely Hungarian town, according to Slovak views, under the Hungarian surface there was a genuine Slovak core hidden. When minister Vavro Šrobár visited Košice in July 1919, the first County Sheriff of Slovakia, Ján Sekáč, greeted him as follows:  </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Minister, I would like to offer you a very warm welcome to Košice, a town which has always been ours and will continue to be ours. This town, which is of utmost importance not only for Eastern Slovensko, but for the entire Slovensko, is of Slovak origins; the core, the roots are Slovak, and only the surface plastering is foreign. However, we hope that following a fertilizing Slovak shower, this plastering will fall off by itself.<sup data-fn="6f893adb-cce0-4d5f-93ce-24024ae4ed5d" class="fn"><a href="#6f893adb-cce0-4d5f-93ce-24024ae4ed5d" id="6f893adb-cce0-4d5f-93ce-24024ae4ed5d-link">9</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>&nbsp;Naturally, it must be remembered that the monochromatic exterior was not due exclusively to the higher number of citizens with Hungarian sympathies. It was a spinoff of socio-political relations: up to 1918, accepting the Hungarian state ideology was a basic precondition to acquiring social positions. Thus, Hungarians or those living as Hungarians were the leaders of the town, occupied important offices, managed educational institutions, and were in charge of the press. Thus, they were much more visible than the Slovak craftsmen on the town’s outskirts or the Slovak-speaking market women.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Alternative to double control: December 1918  </h2>



<p>Although Košice had no special significance in the Slovak national life, from the very beginning Czechoslovakia insisted that the town should be under their control, and they spoke of it as a future centre of Slovak culture because, without it, governing eastern Slovakia and Subcarpathia would have been impossible. Nevertheless, Košice citizens took little notice of this aspiration, not connecting the declaration of the Czechoslovak state with their own fate. They still saw their future in Hungary. The agreement over the temporary demarcation lines signed on 6<sup>th</sup> December, 1918 by the Budapest deputy of the Czechoslovak government Milan Hodža and minister of war Albert Bartha confirmed their conviction, as it left the town under Hungary’s control.<sup data-fn="779a1adc-118a-4bb0-b652-3a7ff12774cb" class="fn"><a href="#779a1adc-118a-4bb0-b652-3a7ff12774cb" id="779a1adc-118a-4bb0-b652-3a7ff12774cb-link">10</a></sup> This demarcation line suggested an alternative that would have based Hungarian-Slovak separation on ethnic principles and – mostly in line with its ethnic composition &#8211; would have left Košice to Hungary. Considering the support in Paris for the demands of the Czechoslovak political elite headed by foreign minister Edvard Beneš, this option was not realistic. </p>



<p>When Košice citizens were still hopeful, for the Hungarian National Council that had controlled the town from the Aster Revolution in October 1918 and for its government commissioner Miklós Molnár, by mid-December the Czechoslovak intentions were transparent. Although initially people in Košice seemed to be ready for the armed defence of their town, when it turned out that the Budapest government refused to help, they abandoned the idea.<sup data-fn="07e831c8-a7fe-495a-8829-54cf03c97caa" class="fn"><a href="#07e831c8-a7fe-495a-8829-54cf03c97caa" id="07e831c8-a7fe-495a-8829-54cf03c97caa-link">11</a></sup></p>



<p>Modifying the original plan, they spent their energy on ensuring that if the occupation was unavoidable, there should be as few conflicts and sacrifices as possible. This is why on 21<sup>st</sup> December Molnár started negotiations with the Czechoslovak government’s envoy Milan Hodža, who was staying in Budapest, on the practicalities of the occupation. Although they managed to conclude the agreement the same, Hodža requested that only the following day should they put their signatures on it, but then with reference to the change of circumstances, the Slovak politician refused to sign it.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In this context, two questions arise. Firstly: Why did Hodža’s view change in one day? And more importantly: If it had been signed, what would the agreement have meant for Košice? The answer to the first query is to be found in the constantly changing situation: on 21st December Hodža launched negotiations with Molnár believing that the demarcation line he had bargained for on 6th December was still in force, leaving Košice under Hungary’s control.<sup data-fn="c180d302-7502-4e84-b65b-5f3e9d511bf2" class="fn"><a href="#c180d302-7502-4e84-b65b-5f3e9d511bf2" id="c180d302-7502-4e84-b65b-5f3e9d511bf2-link">12</a></sup> In other words, agreement on the way of occupation seemed favourable to him even if he had to make compromises with the town’s leadership. Meanwhile, however, a new demarcation line was drawn in Paris, according to which Košice could be taken under Czechoslovak control. Hodža must have received notification of the new demarcation line sometime in the evening of 21st December, i.e., not much after he had talked to Miklós Molnár.<sup data-fn="6700d81a-3ce9-4fb9-8f5c-83b642d1ee5d" class="fn"><a href="#6700d81a-3ce9-4fb9-8f5c-83b642d1ee5d" id="6700d81a-3ce9-4fb9-8f5c-83b642d1ee5d-link">13</a></sup> In possession of this information, Hodža was no longer interested in signing an agreement that would have tied the Czechoslovak party’s hands. </p>



<p>The main content of the ten-point agreement, whose text was later made public by Miklós Molnár,<sup data-fn="0df179bc-fb0f-4336-a798-e3e4539d5750" class="fn"><a href="#0df179bc-fb0f-4336-a798-e3e4539d5750" id="0df179bc-fb0f-4336-a798-e3e4539d5750-link">14</a></sup> can be summarized in three important messages. According to the first, led by French officers, the Czechoslovak occupation would happen on 2<sup>nd</sup> January 1919 in the way planned ahead. According to the second, following the occupation, the town would be jointly controlled by the Hungarian and the Czechoslovak government commissioners, relying on the Hungarian legal system. The third vital point was that the occupiers would ensure that citizens could exercise their fundamental human and nationality rights.  </p>



<p>The content of the agreement was in essence built on the view adopted by the Hungarian party and originating from the Belgrade Convention that the eventual occupation of Košice would be temporary and that, before the final decision of the peace conference, the town should be legally regarded as part of Hungary. This reflected the intentions of Miklós Molnár, who resigned himself to the occupation, but saw it as a temporary solution and wished to diminish its weight.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>While Molnár’s intentions are easy to understand, Hodža’s motivation is harder to decipher.&nbsp; This is because the interpretation following from the agreement’s wording, namely that Košice should be regarded as part of Hungary up to the signing of the peace contract, was in stark contrast to the Czechoslovak view that the territory they referred to as Slovakia had already belonged to the new state since 28<sup>th</sup> October. This means that Hodža wanted the agreement only in order to gain time and to speed up the occupation of Košice, while he must have assumed that the agreement he had signed did not tie Prague’s hand and freedom of action.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Another major issue is how realistic the enforcement of the agreement was. The text Molnár presented suggested the possibility of a takeover built on a balance of the old and the new power, thereby, resulting in a type of double control up to the peace conference. No matter how attractive this solution might seem, the idea that the town should be controlled jointly by commissioners representing two different governments was rather irrealistic.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The town’s first occupation: the period of parallel power structure</h2>



<p>The occupation of Košice, which the Czechoslovak party was entitled to carry out according to the new demarcation line marked out by the Entente, finally happened on 29<sup>th</sup> December, 1918. The occupation had been preceded by an agreement between the town’s representatives and the commander of the occupying forces, which unlike the agreement between Molnár and Hodža, merely specified the way of occupation without carrying any political content. It is partly due to this agreement that, defying citizens‘ earlier fears,<sup data-fn="010fd872-193c-43c4-ab31-12b16d6cf1f0" class="fn"><a href="#010fd872-193c-43c4-ab31-12b16d6cf1f0" id="010fd872-193c-43c4-ab31-12b16d6cf1f0-link">15</a></sup> the occupying troops marched into the town in an orderly manner, under Czech and Slovak banners, and “singing joyfully all the way,” as reported by the local newspaper.<sup data-fn="76e3a720-fd77-44be-a3be-7ef6dff12a41" class="fn"><a href="#76e3a720-fd77-44be-a3be-7ef6dff12a41" id="76e3a720-fd77-44be-a3be-7ef6dff12a41-link">16</a></sup> There was no fighting or bloodshed.  </p>



<p>When the Czechoslovaks occupied the town on 29<sup>th</sup> December, 1918, they took over directly from its former power holders. This meant that although public order was weakened, there was no power vacuum in the sense of leaving the town without administration for a shorter or longer period. Even in the days of the occupation, most offices and institutions worked without interruption, and continued in the days following the occupation. Therefore, the days and even weeks following 29<sup>th</sup> December are best described with the term “parallel power”. In the first weeks of the occupation, besides the new state structures, the old ones were still in operation. Even though officially Prague denied the fact, they had to share their authority with Budapest.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The causes of “parallel power” are to be found primarily in the insecure constitutional status, as the peace conference had not even started yet, and for Prague it was vitally important that Paris should be receiving news of consolidation thanks to the Czechoslovak occupation, rather than of armed conflict and a violent takeover in Košice.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>It was this constitutional insecurity that forced the new power holders (i.e., the Czechoslovak side) to compromise, while strengthening the resolution of the old power holders (i.e., the Hungarian side) not to accept the new system as legitimate. Compromise was additionally necessitated by a shortage of the Czechoslovak state’s human resources required for the town’s full takeover. For this reason, while they took over the main positions in a few days and appointed their own cadres (mayor, county sheriff, chief of police, and attorney general), people at lower levels of urban institutions and public administration were allowed to stay. Symbolic completion of the takeover process happened on 7<sup>th</sup> January, when the new government-appointed Slovak Mayor Vladimír Mutňanský had the Czechoslovak flag planted on the town hall.<sup data-fn="37abc8ab-d5ca-4266-920c-435d563876a4" class="fn"><a href="#37abc8ab-d5ca-4266-920c-435d563876a4" id="37abc8ab-d5ca-4266-920c-435d563876a4-link">17</a></sup> Members of the old guard did not even have to take the oath of allegiance (as earlier planned); they were only expected to conscientiously perform their duties and not to openly turn against the new state. Stressing the incomplete nature of the power takeover, one Czechoslovak report notes that although a Czech had been appointed head of the urban police, members of the police force were so unreliable that “during more serious events, their guns had to be taken from them.”<sup data-fn="08792d12-5407-4378-ab59-0d8dae5757ae" class="fn"><a href="#08792d12-5407-4378-ab59-0d8dae5757ae" id="08792d12-5407-4378-ab59-0d8dae5757ae-link">18</a></sup></p>



<p>In other words, while the new mayor and police chief derived their power from decisions taken by the Prague administration, most officers derived theirs from the Hungarian constitution. Inevitably, this led to numerous conflicts, but at this point the new power did not always come out victorious. Thus, when Mayor Mutňanský ruled in a decree of 18<sup>th</sup> January, 1919 that all state offices and institutions should have the Slovak and Czech flags flying and that signs on public buildings should be displayed in Slovak in addition to Hungarian,<sup data-fn="741b60c8-a660-46b7-91c4-592476992176" class="fn"><a href="#741b60c8-a660-46b7-91c4-592476992176" id="741b60c8-a660-46b7-91c4-592476992176-link">19</a></sup> most institutions refused to obey. In turn, after consultations with the central government in Bratislava (Pozsony in Hungarian), the local mayor backed down.  </p>



<p>Although already in the first weeks of the occupation there were certain conflicts between the new regime on the one hand, and the citizens and the old elite on the other, they did not take the form of violent clashes, which is owed to both parties. Public sentiment in Košice was characterised by a ‘wait and see’ approach and a belief that the situation was only temporary, while the Czechoslovak power showed a type of reserved determination. The recollections of the Košice theatre director Ödön Faragó also portray a disciplined and polite but determined opponent:&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>On the last day of the year, two Czechoslovak army officers came to see me. Their visit, conduct, and voice took on the politest forms. They showed the respect due to a host, but they tactfully informed me that this was no longer Hungary… “a lost war and everything belongs to the Czechoslovaks.”<sup data-fn="19887f85-84dc-41c1-9b37-64c6f5e80068" class="fn"><a href="#19887f85-84dc-41c1-9b37-64c6f5e80068" id="19887f85-84dc-41c1-9b37-64c6f5e80068-link">20</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The realities of dictatorial power </h2>



<p>From mid-February, a growing number of cracks were tangible under the peaceful surface, eventually leading to open clashes between the two sides. The turning point came with a general strike in mid-February, crippling the town for five days from 14<sup>th</sup> February.<sup data-fn="aaac294a-c06d-4cb8-a2b0-b71e940496b4" class="fn"><a href="#aaac294a-c06d-4cb8-a2b0-b71e940496b4" id="aaac294a-c06d-4cb8-a2b0-b71e940496b4-link">21</a></sup> Although the strike was prompted by social and economic issues, it was a type of silent but determined sign that most of the population rejected Czechoslovakia.    </p>



<p>Bratislava and Prague labelled the strike an irredentist action organised from Hungary<sup data-fn="bc85f121-d8b4-48ca-83a6-6d92ee1746f6" class="fn"><a href="#bc85f121-d8b4-48ca-83a6-6d92ee1746f6" id="bc85f121-d8b4-48ca-83a6-6d92ee1746f6-link">22</a></sup> and, in return, started applying aggressive methods. The pace of nationalizing education and public spaces was increased, and 17<sup>th</sup> March saw the first fatal fusillade that required casualties.<sup data-fn="acb5ade4-3abc-4260-b5de-5a4944845ce3" class="fn"><a href="#acb5ade4-3abc-4260-b5de-5a4944845ce3" id="acb5ade4-3abc-4260-b5de-5a4944845ce3-link">23</a></sup> Coupled with the state of emergency measures (early evening curfew and closing of bars and restaurants, and increasing numbers of internments)<sup data-fn="507b8cd0-5c00-4e2a-ad3f-14769eb865ae" class="fn"><a href="#507b8cd0-5c00-4e2a-ad3f-14769eb865ae" id="507b8cd0-5c00-4e2a-ad3f-14769eb865ae-link">24</a></sup> introduced after the declaration of the Hungarian Council Republic on 21<sup>st</sup> March 1919, this further deepened the animosity between the Czech state and Košice’s citizens. In the meantime, because of the armed conflict that erupted between Czechoslovakia and Bolshevik-led Hungary, from 24<sup>th</sup> May, martial law tightened: a total ban was imposed on freedom of association, and a curfew was set from 9 p.m. At the same time, rounding up hostages on a massive scale was started, putting some sixty citizens (mostly honest craftsmen) in custody. As County Sheriff Sekáč’s poster informed the public on 25<sup>th</sup> May, the hostages had their life and property at stake: in case law and order was not maintained, members of the Czechoslovak army were attacked, or a rebellion broke out, they were to be immediately executed by a firing squad.<sup data-fn="1432bc96-9d54-40a6-9add-baea18f2abd3" class="fn"><a href="#1432bc96-9d54-40a6-9add-baea18f2abd3" id="1432bc96-9d54-40a6-9add-baea18f2abd3-link">25</a></sup></p>



<p>With the growing possibility that, due to the changing military situation, the Czechoslovak army might have to give up the town, the local population’s resistance against the authority was on the rise. In the first days of June, the Czechoslovak army started to withdraw while, almost unnoticeably, the town was reassuming its old image, and the abandoned offices were repossessed by representatives of local Hungarians. When on 6<sup>th</sup> June the troops of the Hungarian Red Army appeared on the outskirts of the town, local citizens welcomed them as liberators.<sup data-fn="8754d487-4737-491b-bec6-fe27bd3036aa" class="fn"><a href="#8754d487-4737-491b-bec6-fe27bd3036aa" id="8754d487-4737-491b-bec6-fe27bd3036aa-link">26</a></sup> This time, the Hungarian rule lasted for only a month and, on 5<sup>th</sup> July, the Czechoslovak troops invaded and permanently occupied Košice.  </p>



<p>Compared to the first occupation of Košice, the Czechoslovaks’ second invasion was planned as the town’s conquest and humiliation. This is indicated by the fact that already on 5<sup>th</sup> July the envoys of the Czechoslovak troops had given the town’s Hungarian police chief, Béla Cselényi, the scenario for the occupying army staff’s march into town on 7<sup>th</sup> July. It was requested that the Czechoslovak corps of officers, led by French General Hennocque, should be greeted in Košice’s main street, the <em>Fő utca,</em> by the entire former city management, including the entire Civil Guard and the Red Guard, as well as a large turnout of local citizens expressing their reverence. It was also specified that the town should be decorated with Czechoslovak and French flags, and while the General was marching in across a ceremonial gate erected at the end of the <em>Fő utca</em>, all the bells in town had to be ringing loud.<sup data-fn="cbffa261-1fab-4b8c-acee-7ef1b7ae152d" class="fn"><a href="#cbffa261-1fab-4b8c-acee-7ef1b7ae152d" id="cbffa261-1fab-4b8c-acee-7ef1b7ae152d-link">27</a></sup> With young girls in white showering his feet with flowers, the General was met by the Town’s Council followed by Mayor Béla Blanár handing over the town’s keys.<sup data-fn="141e4351-7ac8-4490-93de-0d3d995003b5" class="fn"><a href="#141e4351-7ac8-4490-93de-0d3d995003b5" id="141e4351-7ac8-4490-93de-0d3d995003b5-link">28</a></sup></p>



<p>This ceremony was another indication that, in July 1919, the Czechoslovak troops were arriving much more confidently than in the last days of 1918 and wanted the population to sense their power. At the time of the first occupation, they were more cautious because the terrain was unfamiliar; moreover, it was a period when not only was there no decision on the new state borders, but the peace conference had not even been convened yet. In July 1919, they already knew who they were facing, namely the town and its inhabitants; more importantly, the Supreme Council of the Peace Conference had also confirmed their possession of Košice.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Compared to the former situation, the new occupation was a complete takeover of power. Not only at the highest levels of public administration did they start changes but also in offices and state-run companies. At the same time, the nationalisation of public spaces, public life, and education was gaining momentum. In the autumn of 1919, the question was no longer whether Slovak signs could be placed on facades of institutions, but whether Hungarian signs could be kept at all next to the Slovak ones.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Summary</h2>



<p>The state changes following World War I in the region of present-day Slovakia are usually described as a struggle between clearly distinct forces, whereby the semi-feudal Hungarian Kingdom was replaced by a democratic Czechoslovak state. However, as evidenced by the case of Košice, this is not what the local inhabitants sensed, neither was the dividing line between the two worlds as sharp as we earlier thought. Admittedly, the Czechoslovak troops’ march into Košice marked a new era in the town’s life, but it did not mean the end of the former era. In the weeks and months following the occupation, a type of double authority was developed in Košice (as well as in other southern Slovak regions) in which the old and the new state’s institutions of power were both present. While the new mayor would follow Prague’s orders, at lower administrative levels and in local institutions, Budapest was still regarded as the legitimate centre of power. This duality was manifest in the economy (for weeks, the town had two catering offices, one of which was trying to acquire food from Prague, the other one from Budapest), in language use (while the town would communicate with Prague and Bratislava in Czech and Slovak, in the various urban fora everything was still done in Hungarian for several months to come), but most of all, in the attitude of local citizens, who felt that events could be reversed and were reluctant to adjust to the Czechoslovak state structure.&nbsp; The Hungarian Council Republic’s conquest of about a month in June 1919 confirmed citizens’ conviction that a return was possible.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The breaking down of Hungarian state structures and the town’s administration was accelerated only after the Czechoslovaks’ July takeover of Košice. By this time, the final state borders had been established, and Košice citizens had to face the Czechoslovak state’s reality. However, there were several factors that eased this process. One was the return of a sense of security. The second occupation of Košice and the finalization of state borders gave people the feeling that the First World War was over, and that violence and uncertainty were no longer part of their life. In addition, integration into the Czechoslovak state was eased by the democratisation of public life and politics, a process that led to the adoption of a democratic Constitution in February 1920 and the first parliamentary elections. The events starting in the autumn of 1919 demonstrated that the authorities had to resign themselves to the fact that the town administration was impossible without the local community’s involvement. At the same time, Hungarians in Košice also saw the inevitability of coming to terms with the state law and adjusting to it. The development characterising Košice in the interwar period would have been impossible without this compromise.&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Simon Attila</strong> is director of the Fórum Minority Research Institute in Šamorín (Somorja in Hungarian), and associate professor at Selye János University in Komárno (Komárom in Hungarian) in Slovakia. His professional interests are centered on the history of Hungarians in Slovakia between the two world wars. He is the author of about a hundred academic works, including eight monographs. </p>



<p><em>Translated from Hungarian into English by Eszter Tímár</em> </p>


<ol class="wp-block-footnotes"><li id="2ca4c5c4-0c8f-4d76-87ff-3b6597c8ad17">* The author gratefully acknowledges the contribution of the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the project APVV-20-0336 Transformations of the Community of Hungarians in Slovakia over the Last Hundred Years, with Special Emphasis on Their Everyday Culture <br><sup>1</sup> Jan Galandauer: Vznik Československé republiky 1918. Programy, projekty, perspektivy [The Birth of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918. Programs, plans, perspectives]. Prague 1988, p. 157 <a href="#2ca4c5c4-0c8f-4d76-87ff-3b6597c8ad17-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 1 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5ab0b039-1e40-466d-9e7c-fb41c78f9473">Most recently, the well-known Slovak historian Roman Holec has contributed to the debate about Košice’s ethnic character: Trianonské rituály alebo úvahy nad niektorými javmi v maďarskej historiografii. In: Historický časopis [Historical Journal] 58 (2010) 2, pp. 191–208. The English translation of Roman Holec’s study is published as: Trianon Rituals or Considerations of Some Features of Hungarian Historiography. In: Ibid<em>.</em>, 59 (2011) suppl. pp. 25-48. From the Hungarian side, Csaba Zahorán reacted to Holec’s somewhat one-sided perspective: Csaba Zahorán: Válasz Roman Holec cikkére [Answer to Roman Holec’s article], Történelmi Szemle [Histrical Review] 53 (2011) 4, pp. 591–613. For details, see Ondrej Ficeri: Potrianonské Košice. Premeny etnických identít obyvaťeľov Košíc v medzivojnovom Československu. Etnické identity obyvateľov Košíc v medzivojnovom Československu [Košice in the Post-Trianon Era. Transformations of the Ethnic Identities of the Košice Population in Interwar Czechoslovakia]. Bratislava 2019; Veronika Szeghy-Gayer: A szlovák–magyar–zsidó–cseh Kassa a 20. század első felében [Slovak-Hungarian-Jewish-Czech Košice in the First Half of the 20th Century], <em>Korall </em>[Coral], 18 (2017) 68, pp. 99–121.  <a href="#5ab0b039-1e40-466d-9e7c-fb41c78f9473-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 2 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="739ec1e1-66e5-4d9c-8974-ee8501b326dd"> Data source: Ficeri: Potrianonské Košice [Košice in the Post-Trianon Era], p. 25.; Forum Minority Research Institute. Szlovákiai Magyar Adatbank. A szlovákiai települések adatbázisa. &lt;<a href="http://telepulesek.adatbank.sk/telepules/kassa-kosice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">http://telepulesek.adatbank.sk/telepules/kassa-kosice/</a>> [Hungarian Databank for Slovakia. Database of Settlements in Slovakia], 1 March 2017.  <a href="#739ec1e1-66e5-4d9c-8974-ee8501b326dd-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 3 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="785315bf-09c8-4bb4-8867-32694e4ed2da">At the time of the 1910 census, 41.7 percent of those regarding themselves Hungarian spoke Slovak as well, while 28.8 percent also spoke German. 70.7 percent of those regarding themselves German spoke Hungarian, and 42.8 percent spoke Slovak as well. 56.5 percent of those regarding themselves Slovak spoke Hungarian, and 5.8 percent spoke German as well. Source of data Ficeri: Potrianonské Košice [Košice in the Post-Trianon Era], pp. 103–104.; For the multilingualism of Košice citizens, see Frank Henschel: <em>“</em>Das Fluidum der Stadt …”: Urbane Lebenswelten in Kassa /Košice/Kaschau zwischen Sprachenvieltfalt und Magyarisierung 1867–1918. Munich 2017, pp. 52–54; Juliane Brandt: Mehrsprachigkeit – ein Weg, verkehrsfähig zu sein. Die Stadtbevölkerung von Kaschau/Kassa/Košice und ihre Sprachen um 1900, In: Spiegelungen, 8/1 (2013), pp. 52–67.  <a href="#785315bf-09c8-4bb4-8867-32694e4ed2da-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 4 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fb7d9875-9ec3-424a-bec6-293111896c68">For the elimination of the Hungarian minority in Slovakia, see László Szarka: Significance of Czechoslovakian-Hungarian Population Exchange in the History of Intended Elimination of Hungarian Minority in Czechoslovakia. In: Minorities Research 10 (2008), pp. 5165; Imre Molnár, László Szarka (eds): <a href="https://www.abebooks.co.uk/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=14820630657&amp;searchurl=sortby%3D17%26an%3DLASZLO%2BSZARKA&amp;cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Memories and Reflections of the Dispossessed: A Collection of Memoirs for the 60th Anniversary of the Czechoslovak-Hungarian Population Exchange</a>. Komárom 2010.  <a href="#fb7d9875-9ec3-424a-bec6-293111896c68-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 5 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="87ea96ef-4706-45bf-a63a-4e6c599791bc">Bálint Varga: Multilingualism in Urban Hungary 18801910, In: Nationalities Papers, 42/6 (2014), pp. 965–980, here: p. 972. <a href="#87ea96ef-4706-45bf-a63a-4e6c599791bc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 6 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3b3195b7-772c-4fe8-9374-bf134ebcc49f">Národní archív České republiky [National Archives of the Czech Republic], Praha (NA ČR), fond Presídium ministerstva vnitra [Presidency of the Ministry of the Interior], AMV 225 (AMV-PMV 225), card 1455, č. 225-1455-3b.  <a href="#3b3195b7-772c-4fe8-9374-bf134ebcc49f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 7 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6cd8333c-7211-46e2-b6a2-1ce4f31fac0e">Slovenský národný archív, Bratislava [Slovak National Archives] (SNA), fond A. Granatier, card 2, Národnostný vývoj Košíc a ich okolia [National Development of Košice and its Surroundings], s. 2. Ficeri: Potrianonské Košice [Košice in the Post-Trianon Era], p. 114.  <a href="#6cd8333c-7211-46e2-b6a2-1ce4f31fac0e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 8 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6f893adb-cce0-4d5f-93ce-24024ae4ed5d">Návšteva ministra dra Šrobára [Visit of Minister Dr. Šrobár]. In: Slovenský východ, 24 July 1919, p. 1 (without author). <a href="#6f893adb-cce0-4d5f-93ce-24024ae4ed5d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 9 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="779a1adc-118a-4bb0-b652-3a7ff12774cb">The agreement on the demarcation line that Hodža had concluded as temporary but that the Hungarian party wished to be final was based mainly on ethnic considerations.   <a href="#779a1adc-118a-4bb0-b652-3a7ff12774cb-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 10 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="07e831c8-a7fe-495a-8829-54cf03c97caa">First, Molnár sent a cable to request help, then travelled to Budapest with the same agenda, but both times his efforts failed. Molnár Miklós: Kassától Košicéig. Történelmi adatgyűjtemény az 1918–19 évi forradalom, vörösuralom és a csehszlovák köztársaság megalakulása idejéből. II. [From Kassa to Košice. Historical Data Collection from the Period of the 1918-1919 Revolution, the Red Rule, and the Establishment of the Czechoslovak Republic. II] 1942, p. 343 and pp. 399–402. <a href="#07e831c8-a7fe-495a-8829-54cf03c97caa-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 11 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c180d302-7502-4e84-b65b-5f3e9d511bf2">This is supported by the fact that in answer to Vix’s note sent to Milan Hodža on 19<sup>th</sup> December, in which the French officer representing the Entente powers reproaches Hodža for the Czechoslovak steps taken to occupy Košice, the Slovak politician answers two days later, on 21st December, implying that the Czechoslovak party has no intention of violating the agreement of 6<sup>th</sup> December. Cf. Archiv Ministerstva zahraničních věcí České republiky (AMZV) [The Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic], f. Parížsky archív (PA) [Paris archives], card 23, č. 2557.  <a href="#c180d302-7502-4e84-b65b-5f3e9d511bf2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 12 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6700d81a-3ce9-4fb9-8f5c-83b642d1ee5d">This is suggested by the fact that while on the 21<sup>st</sup> he is still promising Vix to observe the 6th December agreement, the following day he is asking the French officer to acknowledge the new demarcation line. Magda Ádám, Mária Ormos, József Barabás: Francia diplomáciai iratok 1. 1918-1919 [Documents on French Policy 1. 1918-1919]. &lt;<a href="https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tkt/francia-diplomaciai-1/pr01.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tkt/francia-diplomaciai-1/pr01.html</a>>, 6 July 2017.  <a href="#6700d81a-3ce9-4fb9-8f5c-83b642d1ee5d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 13 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0df179bc-fb0f-4336-a798-e3e4539d5750">Molnár: Kassától Košicéig [From Kassa to Košice], pp. 402–404. <a href="#0df179bc-fb0f-4336-a798-e3e4539d5750-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 14 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="010fd872-193c-43c4-ab31-12b16d6cf1f0">In the days before the occupation, there were regular stories circulating about looting and violence by the “Czech” army allegedly made up of irregular bands and mobs, but in most cases, they proved to be false. Ibid, p. 406. <a href="#010fd872-193c-43c4-ab31-12b16d6cf1f0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 15 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="76e3a720-fd77-44be-a3be-7ef6dff12a41">A város a megszállás első órái alatt [In the First Hours of the Town’s Occupation]. In: Kassai Újság [Košice Newspaper], 31 December 1918, p. 2 (without author). <a href="#76e3a720-fd77-44be-a3be-7ef6dff12a41-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 16 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="37abc8ab-d5ca-4266-920c-435d563876a4">Kassai Hírlap<em> </em>[Košice Gazette]<em>,</em> 9 January 1919, p. 1 (without author and title). <a href="#37abc8ab-d5ca-4266-920c-435d563876a4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 17 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="08792d12-5407-4378-ab59-0d8dae5757ae">NA ČR, fond AMV-PMV 225, card 1455, č. 225-1455-3b. <a href="#08792d12-5407-4378-ab59-0d8dae5757ae-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 18 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="741b60c8-a660-46b7-91c4-592476992176">Molnár: Kassától Košicéig [From Kassa to Košice], p. 185. <a href="#741b60c8-a660-46b7-91c4-592476992176-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 19 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="19887f85-84dc-41c1-9b37-64c6f5e80068">Ödön Faragó<em>: </em>A szlovenszkói és ruszinszkói magyar színészet 25 éves története. 1918 évtől a szovjet felszabadítási harcokig. p. 26 [Twenty-five Years of Hungarian Theatre in Slovensko and Rusinsko from 1918 to the Russian Liberation Fights] (Manuscript, National Széchényi Library, Theatre and Music Collection, boxes no. 47–48). <a href="#19887f85-84dc-41c1-9b37-64c6f5e80068-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 20 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="aaac294a-c06d-4cb8-a2b0-b71e940496b4">For details of the strike, see Harc az életért és szabadságért [Fighting for Life and Freedom]. In: Kassai Munkás. 22 February 1919, pp. 1–4 (without author). <a href="#aaac294a-c06d-4cb8-a2b0-b71e940496b4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 21 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="bc85f121-d8b4-48ca-83a6-6d92ee1746f6">The Czechoslovak party’s position on the strike is well represented by the town’s chief police officer. Jozef V. Kohout: Obsadenie Košíc československým vojskom 29. decembra 1918. – Udalosti v januári a februári 1919 [Košice’s Occupation by the Czechoslovak Army on 29<sup>th</sup> December, 1918. – Events of January and February 1919]. In: Karol A. Medvecký (ed.): Slovenský prevrat IV [Slovak State Change IV]. Bratislava 1931, pp. 288–299, here: p. 297. <a href="#bc85f121-d8b4-48ca-83a6-6d92ee1746f6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 22 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="acb5ade4-3abc-4260-b5de-5a4944845ce3">Two people were shot dead by soldiers when the crowd protesting against the defeat of the 1848 war of liberation was attacked by Czechoslovak soldiers.  <a href="#acb5ade4-3abc-4260-b5de-5a4944845ce3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 23 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="507b8cd0-5c00-4e2a-ad3f-14769eb865ae">No research has been done yet on issues of internment. Most internees were transported to the internment camp in Ilava in Slovakia and Terezin in Czechia. For conditions there, see Todd Huebner: The Internment Camp at Terezín, 1919. In: Austrian History Yearbook. 27 (1996), pp. 199–211; Attila Simon: Internácie z južného Slovenska v roku 1919. Dodatok k charakteru dobového Československého štátu [Internment of People from Southern Slovakia in 1919. A Supplement to the Character of the Emerging Czechoslovak State] In: Historický časopis 68 (2020) pp. 271–290.  <a href="#507b8cd0-5c00-4e2a-ad3f-14769eb865ae-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 24 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1432bc96-9d54-40a6-9add-baea18f2abd3"> Molnár: Kassától Košicéig [From Kassa to Košice], pp. 450–455.  <a href="#1432bc96-9d54-40a6-9add-baea18f2abd3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 25 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8754d487-4737-491b-bec6-fe27bd3036aa"> Kassai Hírlap commented on the return of Hungarian rule as follows: “The long- awaited day has arrived. The hour of liberation has struck. The sky has cleared up over the town of Košice, and, on 6<sup>th</sup> June, we have the sun of freedom beaming on us. Its shining crown radiates peace on us. Alas, the old virtue of Hungarians is not dead. They are ready to shed their last drop of blood for the homeland, a gem of which has been repossessed today.” Kassa felszabadult [Košice is Liberated]. In: Kassai Hírlap<em>,</em> June 7, 1919, p. 2 (without author).   <a href="#8754d487-4737-491b-bec6-fe27bd3036aa-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 26 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cbffa261-1fab-4b8c-acee-7ef1b7ae152d">Police Captain Kohout claims that the pompous reception of the occupiers’ staff was a part of Košice Hungarians’ two-faced strategy to win Hennocque’s sympathies. This interpretation, however, does not seem realistic. SNA, fond Jozef Kohout, card 11, Panu ministrovi plnou mocou pre správu Slovenska [To the Minister for the Administration of Slovakia] 9 July 1919. <a href="#cbffa261-1fab-4b8c-acee-7ef1b7ae152d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 27 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="141e4351-7ac8-4490-93de-0d3d995003b5">Molnár: Kassától Košicéig [From Kassa to Košice], pp. 12–20. <a href="#141e4351-7ac8-4490-93de-0d3d995003b5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 28 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li></ol><p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/alternatives-to-a-takeover-of-power-kosice-1918-1919/">Alternatives to a Takeover of Power. Košice 1918–1919*</a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<title>Slovene Ethnolinguistic Nationalism as Rhetoric and Practice in Post-Imperial School Administration in Prekmurje </title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/slovene-ethnolinguistic-nationalism-as-rhetoric-and-practice-in-post-imperial-school-administration-in-prekmurje/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 10:44:20 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Wissenschaft]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=827</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Jernej Kosi, University of Ljubljana  In July 1919, the Yugoslav delegation at the Paris Peace Conference received permission to occupy segments of two western counties of the Kingdom of Hungary: Vas/Železna and Zala. In early August 1919, Yugoslav forces therefore crossed the state border and acquired control over the Hungarian region, in accordance with the [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/slovene-ethnolinguistic-nationalism-as-rhetoric-and-practice-in-post-imperial-school-administration-in-prekmurje/">Slovene Ethnolinguistic Nationalism as Rhetoric and Practice in Post-Imperial School Administration in Prekmurje </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p>Jernej Kosi<sup data-fn="fe07b0ae-9be6-4429-8b8b-9ce92be89f46" class="fn"><a href="#fe07b0ae-9be6-4429-8b8b-9ce92be89f46" id="fe07b0ae-9be6-4429-8b8b-9ce92be89f46-link">1</a></sup>, University of Ljubljana </p>



<p>In July 1919, the Yugoslav delegation at the Paris Peace Conference received permission to occupy segments of two western counties of the Kingdom of Hungary: Vas/Železna and Zala. In early August 1919, Yugoslav forces therefore crossed the state border and acquired control over the Hungarian region, in accordance with the demarcation lines drawn in Paris. A year later, the Yugoslav territorial acquisition was confirmed by the Treaty of Trianon. Except for a short interruption during World War II, the area has since been under Slovene administrative control and officially recognized as Prekmurje (in Hungarian, <em>Muravidék</em>).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Parts of Vas/Železna and Zala were a rather small “land grab” in comparison to other, sometimes enormous, territorial demands that representatives of newly created states put on the table in Paris. But given the circumstances, the occupation of Prekmurje was a great success for Slovene members of the Yugoslav delegation: in early January 1919, when the delegation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes began to convene in Paris, even the majority of Yugoslav diplomats and experts from different parts of the recently established South Slav state had never heard of Prekmurje. It was not included in the preliminary list of territories claimed for the new polity and was only later outlined on the map that depicted Yugoslav territorial expectations – at the insistence of Slovene delegates, who strove to acquaint other members of the delegation with this small fragment of Hungary. In the months following January 1919, Slovene experts hastily gathered ethnographic, linguistic and historical evidence, creating a seemingly convincing scholarly substantiation for their claim that the majority of the inhabitants of Prekmurje were without doubt of Slovene nationality and origin.<sup data-fn="d8a79b60-530b-4572-a065-44ba455f133c" class="fn"><a href="#d8a79b60-530b-4572-a065-44ba455f133c" id="d8a79b60-530b-4572-a065-44ba455f133c-link">2</a></sup></p>



<p>In 1919, however, the notion of Slovenes populating western parts of Hungary was far from a new invention of contemporary diplomats and experts. In Cisleithanian intellectual circles – and, most of all, among middle-class Slovene national activists living in the Cisleithanian crownlands – belief in the existence of Hungarian Slovenes had been gaining ground since the mid-nineteenth century. In ethnographic studies, travelogues, newspapers and journal reports, the public could acquire many enlightening pieces of information on the supposed Slovenes living on the “other side” of the river Mura/Mur. Thus, the most informed Cisleithanian Slovene nationalists always described Slavophone Hungarians from Vas/Železna and Zala as members of the Slovene nation and imagined this Hungarian region as the easternmost part of Slovene national territory. Slovenes regarded local Slavophones on the other bank of the river Mura/Mur as compatriots, even though few Slovene national activists actually crossed the border and visited this remote and rather underdeveloped Hungarian region in the decades before the collapse of Austria-Hungary. There were, however, strong reasons for adherents to the nationally framed Slovene worldview living in Imperial Austria in the late nineteenth century to believe in the “Sloveneness” of Catholic and Evangelic Slavophone communities in the aforementioned counties. After all, local Slavophones self-described themselves either as (Hungarian) Slovenes or as “Sloveni,” and cultivated the local Slavic literary language that they called the “old Slovene language,” the “Slovene language” or “our language.”<sup data-fn="8500dafd-2d6d-4406-8925-787099c16982" class="fn"><a href="#8500dafd-2d6d-4406-8925-787099c16982" id="8500dafd-2d6d-4406-8925-787099c16982-link">3</a></sup> Following the premises of Slovene ethnolinguistic nationalism, the use of the same, or almost the same, ethnonym and the designation of the local literary language as Slovene were understood as objective markers of Slovene national belonging.<sup data-fn="c76f65a4-5e03-4861-8063-280a81e832f9" class="fn"><a href="#c76f65a4-5e03-4861-8063-280a81e832f9" id="c76f65a4-5e03-4861-8063-280a81e832f9-link">4</a></sup> At the Paris Peace Conference, Slovene members of the Yugoslav delegation responsible for the “case of Prekmurje” thus simply followed the pre-war arguments of Slovene nationalists and amassed “objective evidence” that should have persuaded the decision makers of the righteousness of Yugoslav territorial claims. Working tirelessly, day and night, for months, they were eventually successful – but only after the outbreak of the Hungarian revolution and the promise of Yugoslav forces potentially contributing to its suppression encouraged the Supreme Council to show more understanding for the additional Yugoslav territorial demands.<sup data-fn="5a3d547e-3ce2-4334-a3e0-4d12fa137675" class="fn"><a href="#5a3d547e-3ce2-4334-a3e0-4d12fa137675" id="5a3d547e-3ce2-4334-a3e0-4d12fa137675-link">5</a></sup></p>



<p>Soon after Yugoslav forces crossed the border in early August 1919, the Slovene central executive in Ljubljana established an ad hoc office of civil commissioner in charge of public administration in Prekmurje. The commissioner, who had his office in Murska Sobota (in Hungarian, <em>Muraszombat</em>), was subordinate to the Slovene Provincial Government in Ljubljana, which retained exclusive authority to assign and dismiss officials in the region. Unsurprisingly, the government began replacing Hungarian administrators with Slovene ones immediately after the occupation, transferring the latter from their posts in the former Cisleithanian crownlands to Prekmurje. At the same time, the Slovene government in Ljubljana began sending experts to the occupied territory in order to gather information on social, cultural and political circumstances in the region.<sup data-fn="cd05b830-abf1-4bf1-b1ba-8f37879a18a6" class="fn"><a href="#cd05b830-abf1-4bf1-b1ba-8f37879a18a6" id="cd05b830-abf1-4bf1-b1ba-8f37879a18a6-link">6</a></sup> Lacking reliable and verifiable information, Slovene politicians and public servants who worked in Ljubljana sought precise observations about the state of affairs in Prekmurje. It was, after all, without a direct railway connection to other Slovene territories; as such, it was a very remote and almost inaccessible area far to the east of the national heartland. </p>



<p>About a month after the occupation, the Higher School Council in Ljubljana, the leading administrative body responsible for the school network under the control of the Slovene National Government, sent Franjo Cvetko to Prekmurje. Cvetko, a head teacher from the neighboring East Styrian village of Vučja vas, departed on a mission to assess the existing situation and report in detail on the organization of the school network in the region. In a series of documents dispatched to Ljubljana in the following weeks, Cvetko meticulously described the cultural circumstances and social conditions in local schools and evaluated the competence of the existing teaching staff (see below). In addition, he suggested the measures that should be taken in Prekmurje’s schools, focusing first and foremost concerning the language of instruction.<sup data-fn="e1e35f87-537e-4087-bcf7-3ee88b582d76" class="fn"><a href="#e1e35f87-537e-4087-bcf7-3ee88b582d76" id="e1e35f87-537e-4087-bcf7-3ee88b582d76-link">7</a></sup></p>



<p>Given that in autumn 1918, the Slovene language was declared the official language of the territory under the control of the Slovene government, Cvetko proposed an immediate dismissal of teachers who were fluent only in Hungarian or German and their replacement with Slovene speakers from the former Cisleithania. His proposal was certainly quite common in a post-1918 Central European transitional period marked by the triumph of the “principle of nationality.” It also corresponded with the prevalent discourse spread by Slovene politicians, national activists and journalists that described the annexation of Prekmurje as the redemption of Slovene brothers who had suffered for centuries under the Hungarian yoke. What is much more surprising, however, is Cvetko’s attitude towards the local literary Slavic language, which was traditionally used as an unofficial auxiliary language of instruction in several elementary schools in Prekmurje. Cvetko claimed that that this local Slovene should be prohibited in schools as well. Instead, the official Slovene national (standard) literary language should be the exclusive language of instruction in Prekmurje. However, such a linguistic transformation could only happen if the local Slavophone teachers, fluent in the local Slovene but with a very limited knowledge of standard literary Slovene, improved their poor language skills. A cohort of “native” local Slovene teachers should, Cvetko concluded, take courses in the standard Slovene national language and pass a test of fluency to continue teaching in Prekmurje elementary schools.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Cvetko’s stance on the “school question in Prekmurje” gained many vocal supporters among Slovene officials, school experts, teachers and journalists. In their eagerness to re-educate their supposed local Slovene compatriots, both pupils and local teachers, it turned out that Slovene school authorities did not want to waste more time than necessary. Preparations for school reform along the proposed lines thus began even before the Treaty of Trianon (1920) confirmed the annexation of Prekmurje. But why such a hurry? Why was it so important to start transforming the linguistic image of Prekmurje immediately after acquiring the region? By presenting several illuminating and telling fragments from newspaper articles, administrative reports and official measures employed after the occupation and annexation of Prekmurje, I argue that Slovene officials who came to Prekmurje regarded monolingual Slovene schools as an essential tool for the dissemination of Slovene national ideas and the socialization of pupils into members of the Slovene nation. The Slovene administrators’ zeal regarding the transformation and the reestablishment of local schools was rooted in the pre-1918 rhetoric and practices of Cisleithanian Slovene ethnolinguistic national activists. Having experienced the late Imperial Austrian “national struggles” as conflicts over the use of language, Slovene officials believed proficiency in the standard Slovene national language to be a necessary precondition for identification with the Slovene nation.<sup data-fn="f29e8622-03e0-4d43-92b1-35ff92d50e63" class="fn"><a href="#f29e8622-03e0-4d43-92b1-35ff92d50e63" id="f29e8622-03e0-4d43-92b1-35ff92d50e63-link">8</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Local literary Slovene language or Prekmurje dialect of the standard Slovene national language? </h2>



<p>Cvetko wrote his report after four short trips to Prekmurje in the early autumn of 1919. His accounts later formed the core of state policy concerning the incorporation of local schools into the broader framework of educational institutions controlled by the Slovene government. In particular, politicians and public servants in Ljubljana followed his line of reasoning with regard to the language of instruction and the question of the future employment of local Slavophone or bilingual teachers. What was it then that Cvetko proposed and how did he substantiate it?&nbsp;</p>



<p>The starting point of Cvetko’s proposition was an “ethnographic fact.” According to his “findings”—which, as it soon turned out, did not correspond with the actual linguistic situation in the region—all children in Prekmurje were Slovenes. They were fluent in a variation of the Slovene language similar to the vernacular spoken by their compatriots, the so-called <em>Prleki</em>, who lived in <em>Prlekija</em>, the territory between the rivers Drava and Mura in neighbouring (Slovene) Styria. The language of Prekmurje children was, Cvetko claimed, pure and utterly comprehensible to every Slovene speaker. In Cvetko’s opinion, even discussing the existence of a special “Prekmurje dialect” was thus meaningless, as there was no such idiom in Prekmurje. In other words, Cvetko believed that a distinctive regional Slovene language of Prekmurje did not “de facto” exist.<sup data-fn="f4e6916b-16e6-4875-9a0d-6b0d4a029052" class="fn"><a href="#f4e6916b-16e6-4875-9a0d-6b0d4a029052" id="f4e6916b-16e6-4875-9a0d-6b0d4a029052-link">9</a></sup></p>



<p>While Cvetko hailed the impeccable language skills of Slovene-speaking Slovene children in Prekmurje, he could not hide his contempt for the local teachers. Many of them were non-native “foreign-born Hungarians,” who, according to Cvetko, either were not able to communicate in Slovene or had a tremendously poor knowledge of it and should thus be laid off. Yet he also considered teachers born in Prekmurje or of Slavic origin to be of questionable character. They were presumably incapable of holding Slovene classes due to their insufficient language skills. They spoke&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>worse than the common folk, and one cannot talk of grammatical knowledge. Despite that, the Higher school council could keep them where they are, or possibly transfer them to other positions, but under the condition or, better said, with a downright categorical demand that they immediately start learning proper Slovene and, in a year or two, take a complementary exam in Slovene or else be dismissed.… [T]hese people have been infatuated only with noble Hungarian, and when it comes to our Slovene literature they are utterly ignorant. Because they are our people and because they have a number of children to take care of, they should not be laid off; that would be inhumane. It would be graceful if we reached out a helping hand.<sup data-fn="616a68bc-791e-4fe7-b528-3a2d69b65381" class="fn"><a href="#616a68bc-791e-4fe7-b528-3a2d69b65381" id="616a68bc-791e-4fe7-b528-3a2d69b65381-link">10</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>Because local schoolteachers were raised and educated in pre-war Hungary, they were, contended Cvetko, “soaked with Magyaron spirit and emotions and speak only Prekmurje Slovene, some of them very badly.”<sup data-fn="de36149e-ed45-425c-8fe0-53353259f88f" class="fn"><a href="#de36149e-ed45-425c-8fe0-53353259f88f" id="de36149e-ed45-425c-8fe0-53353259f88f-link">11</a></sup> By pejoratively describing domestic educators as Magyarons (<em>Madžaroni</em>), Cvetko implicitly claimed these pro-Hungarian Slavophone locals could not be trusted, for they had accepted Hungarian identity at the expense of their own original, presumably Slovene, ethnicity. For this reason, Cvetko continued, the schools in Prekmurje that had only one class and a single teaching post should be taken over by “our younger teachers,” that is, by Slovene personnel from the former Cisleithanian regions. In schools with several classes and more than one teacher, however, a local teacher could remain if “our Slovene teacher” were appointed beside him to serve as a translator and his personal educator. Local teachers left in their posts should be subjected to the strict control of the newly assigned schoolmaster or school supervisor.<sup data-fn="9343cec4-d4c0-43a0-877a-01f9c5a82f0d" class="fn"><a href="#9343cec4-d4c0-43a0-877a-01f9c5a82f0d" id="9343cec4-d4c0-43a0-877a-01f9c5a82f0d-link">12</a></sup></p>



<p>Although, as mentioned above, Cvetko did not acknowledge the existence of a specific regional Slovene idiom, he simply could not avoid the question of the local literary Slovene that had already been present in printed and scripted writings in Prekmurje for at least two centuries. He somehow had to address the fact that the local Slovene was the unofficial auxiliary language of instruction in many Prekmurje elementary schools with Slavophone pupils, the language of religious instruction in schools and the language of liturgy in local Evangelic churches. Yet, as already mentioned, a general intolerance towards the linguistic peculiarity of the region underlay his proposal regarding the use of the local literary Slovene language in schools. The language of instruction in Prekmurje, he claimed, should be the standard Slovene national language from the former Cisleithanian lands, because “with the proper, that is our literary, Slovene, we would culturally elevate and assimilate the local common folk – who are, after all, a branch of our trunk.”<sup data-fn="1d58ad34-5285-47e8-8768-968e1720b969" class="fn"><a href="#1d58ad34-5285-47e8-8768-968e1720b969" id="1d58ad34-5285-47e8-8768-968e1720b969-link">13</a></sup></p>



<p>Cvetko’s line of reasoning was not surprising. As a former Cisleithanian teacher in schools with Slovenian as the language of instruction, his world view was heavily influenced by the fundamental ideological assumption of Slovenian ethnolinguistic nationalism. Since 1848, Slovene national activists had postulated that members of the Slovenian nation were speakers of the Slovenian language who densely inhabited a rounded territory. In other words, the Slovenian language was understood as the only objective marker of Slovene national identity. Therefore, proponents of Slovene ethnolinguistic nationalism believed that the nourishment of a proper Slovenian national language in its standardized form contributed to the facilitation of Slovenian national identity. Only one official written form of standardized language could thus be tolerated in Slovenian schools. Dialectical particularities and digressions that were not incorporated into the standardized Slovenian written language had to be eradicated, as they could undermine national homogeneity.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The majority of contemporaneous reports on Prekmurje published in Slovene newspapers in the former Cisleithanian regions echoed Cvetko’s argument. In <em>Učiteljski tovariš </em>[Teacher’s Comrade], for instance, a newspaper devoted to the education of Slovene teachers and the development of the teaching profession in the Slovene language, an anonymous author called upon the Higher School Council to supply schools in Prekmurje with textbooks in the proper Slovene language, “and not in some ‘dialect of Prekmurje.’ The common folk’s opinion is that children acquire the knowledge of this dialect at home, whereas in school they should learn proper Slovene.”<sup data-fn="9c369046-d892-4bfb-b831-5ff953c70e20" class="fn"><a href="#9c369046-d892-4bfb-b831-5ff953c70e20" id="9c369046-d892-4bfb-b831-5ff953c70e20-link">14</a></sup> The daily newspaper <em>Jugoslavija</em>, published in Ljubljana since the autumn of 1918, reiterated a similar point of view: “The language of instruction, it goes without saying, must be the Slovene language, that is, literary Slovene. There is no need or reason to introduce the dialect of Prekmurje to schools.”<sup data-fn="e220be3a-7b85-4697-9c5e-7fcddec3ba49" class="fn"><a href="#e220be3a-7b85-4697-9c5e-7fcddec3ba49" id="e220be3a-7b85-4697-9c5e-7fcddec3ba49-link">15</a></sup> But Slovene newspapers also published some slightly different opinions. In an article in the newspaper <em>Murska straža </em>[The Watch on the Mura], printed in the nearby Styrian town of Radgona, an author well acquainted with circumstances in Prekmurje argued for a different tactic. He also identified the linguistic homogenization of Prekmurje as the goal of school reform. Yet, drawing on the supposed pre-war experiences of Styrian Slovenes in accepting the standard Slovene language, he claimed that the linguistic measures should be introduced gradually, in order not to upset the locals. He opined that the use of school books in the dialect of Prekmurje should be permitted in local schools, because the people of Prekmurje – the <em>Prekmurci</em> </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>lived culturally and politically separated from us for centuries. Other Slovene regions were in close contact with one another and in general shared the same past. And precisely this is the reason why, for instance, Styrian Slovenes readily adopted the common literary language. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Slovenes were separated from our development. The dialect thus meant more to them than it meant to us; what we saw in our literary language they saw in their dialect. They had their own writers, their own literature. They still maintain this <em>consciousness </em>even today – after the liberation. /…/ It is true that the common folk in general express positive feelings about unification with Yugoslavia. But their idea of Yugoslavia is slightly different from ours, for we instilled a general national consciousness and a deeper political worldview in the common folk. People of Prekmurje (nationally conscious circles excluded) are still afraid of the Styrians, Carniolans, Serbs, etc. This fear will steadily disappear, but the levelling of education demands time and proper means. One such means would be keeping the dialect in schools, while simultaneously introducing the common literary language. The people will gradually feel the need to abandon the dialect for a public purpose, but the fact is that they do not feel it yet, because they <em>cannot</em> feel it.<sup data-fn="31ae72db-8893-4288-9754-4224d339887f" class="fn"><a href="#31ae72db-8893-4288-9754-4224d339887f" id="31ae72db-8893-4288-9754-4224d339887f-link">16</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>Immediately after annexation, the majority of the educated Slavophone inhabitants of Prekmurje held a different view of the Slovene literary language prevailing there than the “Cisleithanian” Slovene journalists or the incoming Slovene administrators and teachers. They did not regard it merely as the Slovene dialect of Prekmurje or as a non-standard variant of the official (national) Slovene language. On the contrary, the local Slavophone intelligentsia perceived their Slovene language as a unique phenomenon, a distinct Slavic literary language which was different both from the Croatian language and the vernaculars further south and from the Slovene language and the vernaculars used across the river Mura in the former Cisleithanian crownlands. Indeed, many locals in Prekmurje described the latter language as ‘kranjski’ (Carniolan), ‘štajerski’ (Styrian) or ‘slavski’ (Slavic) and not as ‘slovenski’ (Slovene), employing the term ‘slovenski’ exclusively for their own spoken and literary language.<sup data-fn="5001a64a-82d3-4cff-830e-844684fa585c" class="fn"><a href="#5001a64a-82d3-4cff-830e-844684fa585c" id="5001a64a-82d3-4cff-830e-844684fa585c-link">17</a></sup></p>



<p>The notion of the individuality of the Prekmurje Slovene literary language or the “old Slovene language” was rooted in its distinctive origins and its continuity of usage. The local Slovene literary tradition had been developing at least since the early 18<sup>th</sup> century, building upon local Slavic vernaculars. It emerged as a result of liturgical necessity among local Protestants but was soon also adopted and cultivated by Catholic writers. However, the language did not stay limited to religious content, nor was it spread exclusively in printed form. Right up until Prekmurje became a part of Yugoslavia, many handwritten texts were also written in the language. For a time after 1868, it was also the language of textbooks in Catholic schools, while from the early 20<sup>th</sup> century on, it was the language of a newspaper and a series of educational books and booklets for a broader readership, edited by a Catholic priest named Jožef Klekl.<sup data-fn="1a877260-7276-41a6-8639-82eb34a893f3" class="fn"><a href="#1a877260-7276-41a6-8639-82eb34a893f3" id="1a877260-7276-41a6-8639-82eb34a893f3-link">18</a></sup></p>



<p>The perceived linguistic exclusiveness of the region went hand-in-hand with the established local collective identifications. Despite what nineteenth- and twentieth-century Slovene national activists from Cisleithania believed, by 1919, the majority of the educated Slavophones of Prekmurje certainly did not identify as members of the Slovene nation. The Slovene national category of identification, which Slovene national activists devised and propagated in Cisleithanian crownlands during the 19<sup>th</sup> century, was almost completely unknown in Prekmurje. Until the annexation, the Slovene national movement simply could not take root in the region, due to the local social composition and institutional differences that regulated the political and cultural landscape in the Kingdom of Hungary. Before the outbreak of the First World War, standardized written Slovenian language was recognised as an official language in the Austrian half of the Dual Monarchy – it was used in schools and offices. School books and newspapers in Slovenian language that freely circulated in Cisleithania were a crucial medium for spreading the message of Slovene ethnolinguistic nationalism among the Slovene-speaking population from the middle of the 19th century onwards. In the Austrian crown provinces of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and the Austrian Littoral lived a relatively small, but nevertheless politically and culturally engaged educated class (lawyers, priests, teachers, merchants, etc.) – a Slovenian nationalist elite that actively propagated the Slovene ethnolinguistic discourse.&nbsp; At the same time, the enactment of municipal autonomy in Cisleithania created an institutionalized space of political conflict in which social and cultural demands could be articulated by nationalist rhetoric and, in this way, used to mobilize rural population under a national flag. All that was missing in pre-1919 “Prekmurje”.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As a consequence, by 1918, less than a dozen Catholic priests from parishes close to the Styrian-Hungarian border actively sympathized with the ethnolinguistic idea of Slovenes who spoke a particular Slavic language, namely Slovene, and who densely populated the area from the very north of the Adriatic Sea to the westernmost patches of Hungary.<sup data-fn="c4fa97d8-09dc-4377-85f2-8b48e963a6db" class="fn"><a href="#c4fa97d8-09dc-4377-85f2-8b48e963a6db" id="c4fa97d8-09dc-4377-85f2-8b48e963a6db-link">19</a></sup> The understanding of Prekmurje as a historical, ethnographical and linguistic part of Slovene territory, which the Slovene experts promoted and argued for at the Paris peace conference, was thus not shared by the majority of local, predominantly rural and barely literate Slavophones in 1919.<sup data-fn="652f72d4-e999-4c63-bf10-1cee247ab241" class="fn"><a href="#652f72d4-e999-4c63-bf10-1cee247ab241" id="652f72d4-e999-4c63-bf10-1cee247ab241-link">20</a></sup> They held a very different perception of collective belongings and specific linguistic preferences, and in fact mostly responded to the imported idea of “Sloveneness” with suspicion and, in many cases, outright rejection. Instead, they persisted in expressing the established loyalties and identifications that had been shaped and disseminated before the 1919 annexation by the Hungarian nationalizing state and the local Catholic and Lutheran Slavophone clergy. Immediately after the occupation, the educated Slavophones did not share with incoming Slovene officials and teachers the notion that the Slovene standard language was a sign of adherence to the Slovene nation either. On the contrary, they regarded the introduction of the “new” official Slovene standard language – perceived as an emblem of national identity by the Slovene government – as a sign of administrative intrusion at best or symbolic violence at worst.<sup data-fn="a96bd485-f467-407a-b36b-3ef71cf13748" class="fn"><a href="#a96bd485-f467-407a-b36b-3ef71cf13748" id="a96bd485-f467-407a-b36b-3ef71cf13748-link">21</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Removal, re.education and re-socialization of the local teachers in the first years after annexation</strong> </h2>



<p>To his meticulously written assessment of school affairs in Prekmurje, Cvetko attached a spreadsheet that provided the civil servants in Ljubljana with a condensed and multifaceted overview of his findings and recommendations. In this document, the future path of Prekmurje teachers – the implicit common theme of the entire report – came to the fore in an unambiguous way. Starting with the school network’s organizational dimension, Cvetko listed school locations in the first column of the spreadsheet, thus delivering an insight into their territorial dispersion. The second column of the report revealed the founders and financial backers of every single elementary school. In 1919, schools in Prekmurje were financed by the municipalities, by churches (Catholic and Protestant) or by the state itself. The third column defined the number of grades. Schools had between one and four grades, the exception being the state school in Murska Sobota (<em>Muraszombat</em>), which had five. The fourth column focused on school attendance. On average, each school was attended by a few hundred pupils, with only 50 enrolled in Predanovci (<em>Rónafő) </em>and as many as 520 in Turnišče (<em>Bántornya)</em>. In the following column, the headmaster listed all the teachers employed: in the autumn of 1919, there were 124 in total in Prekmurje. In the next column, these teachers were categorized according to their “nationality.” The spreadsheet reveals that Cvetko labelled the majority of teachers either as Hungarians (59) or as Slovenes (57), but there were also four Slovaks, two Germans, a Serb and a “Hungarian Serb” who taught in the region.<sup data-fn="6127ee81-164f-4530-b185-5d0c2048fe6f" class="fn"><a href="#6127ee81-164f-4530-b185-5d0c2048fe6f" id="6127ee81-164f-4530-b185-5d0c2048fe6f-link">22</a></sup></p>



<p>The last two columns contained the most interesting data, however, for they somehow sealed the destiny of the existing teaching staff. The penultimate column described each teacher’s “knowledge of Slovene.” Only six of the 59 teachers categorized as Hungarians were considered to be qualified in Slovene. Beside 53 Hungarians, five Slovenes and one German were also evaluated as being unable to speak Slovene. Interestingly enough, the Slovak’s and Serb’s knowledge of Slovene proved to be sufficient, which was also true in the case of one German. Cvetko’s overview of the local schools ended with a column euphemistically titled “Suggestions” or “Remarks”. In this column, Cvetko “suggested” or “remarked” that teachers capable of communicating in the Slovene language—regardless of their nationality—should keep their posts, while all those with an insufficient command of Slovene should simply be dismissed.<sup data-fn="7faac226-3652-4fff-8db5-c5ea662da19c" class="fn"><a href="#7faac226-3652-4fff-8db5-c5ea662da19c" id="7faac226-3652-4fff-8db5-c5ea662da19c-link">23</a></sup></p>



<p>Unlike the merciless views on the local teaching staff and the general intolerance towards Prekmurje’s linguistic distinctiveness that Cvetko expressed in length in the written report, his “Suggestions” and “Remarks” showed greater empathy for the local teachers, and also for the broader expectations of the local elite regarding the continuing usage of local literary Slovene in schools. In the spreadsheet, the local Slavophone teachers were not evaluated from the viewpoint of their loyalty to the new regime, nor was their competence in standard Slovene language assessed. On the contrary, their future destiny depended merely on their ability to continue teaching in local schools with Slavophone pupils by using the local Slavic vernacular.&nbsp;</p>



<p>On 30 October 1919, the Higher School Council issued the decree that put an end to the period of uncertainty and conclusively regulated the question of language in Prekmurje schools. It seems that a decision made by civil servants in Ljubljana somehow reflected the linguistic reality on the ground. The decree unsurprisingly proclaimed standard literary Slovene the language of instruction in all Prekmurje schools, where supposed Slovenes represented the majority of enrolled pupils. Yet the officials also left the door open for necessary compromises. In those schools where teaching in the Slovene national language was not possible due to a lack of appropriate teaching staff, the decree allowed the use of “Prekmurje Slovene” or the “dialect of Prekmurje.” Still, the pupils educated in schools where local Slovene was used were expected to acquire a satisfactory level of knowledge of standard Slovene pronunciation, writing and reading by the time they finished their schooling. The decree also made standard Slovene a compulsory course in places where the population was prevailingly Hungarian and/or German and hence the language of instruction was either Hungarian or German.<sup data-fn="9b1748ff-42b7-4c58-a893-58510db71864" class="fn"><a href="#9b1748ff-42b7-4c58-a893-58510db71864" id="9b1748ff-42b7-4c58-a893-58510db71864-link">24</a></sup></p>



<p>It seems, however, that there were also other, very practical reasons for their tolerating local literary Slovene in schools. The general circumstances in the post-war period dictated a gradual approach, for the all-embracing lack of material and human resources in war-torn Yugoslavia hindered more ambitious ideas for a radical alteration of existing conditions. From the annexation onwards, the Slovene Provincial Government in Ljubljana constantly requested that the central authorities provide funds necessary to hire teachers, restore school buildings and deliver necessary teaching materials and textbooks – mostly to no avail.<sup data-fn="34f64df8-e2de-4667-a171-f1c648cf8202" class="fn"><a href="#34f64df8-e2de-4667-a171-f1c648cf8202" id="34f64df8-e2de-4667-a171-f1c648cf8202-link">25</a></sup></p>



<p>The local authorities nevertheless followed many of Cvetko’s suggestions: they introduced a number of measures and, in general, took responsibility for a gradual linguistic re-education and political realignment of local Slavophone teachers. As early as the late autumn of 1919, for instance, the civil commissioner asked the teachers who had not departed or been fired to notify the Prekmurje school council whether they wished to retain their teaching positions. The case of Ivan Benkovich, the headmaster in Dokležovje, sheds light on the procedure that followed. In November, Benkovich sent his answer, written in Prekmurje Slovene, to the Local School Council in Murska Sobota. He formulated it as a request, stating he would like to keep his post. In his letter, Benkovich revealed that he was born in 1862, that he was Catholic and that his mother tongue was “Prekmurje Slovene,” while he was also fluent in Hungarian and even understood a little German. Enclosed with his application was a written statement, delivered by the specific demand of the Local School Council, in which he pledged to acquire the necessary knowledge of standard literary Slovene in the next twelve months. Only two weeks later, headmaster Benkovič – no longer Benkovich – received a positive reply. The civil commissioner informed him that since December 2, he had already been employed once again in his old teaching post.<sup data-fn="34fd2f07-0c91-47bf-8dc4-44bf378df78e" class="fn"><a href="#34fd2f07-0c91-47bf-8dc4-44bf378df78e" id="34fd2f07-0c91-47bf-8dc4-44bf378df78e-link">26</a></sup></p>



<p>Benkovič assured the authorities he would soon obtain the official certificate of fluency and indeed began to learn the standard literary Slovene. In 1920, the authorities organized language preparation courses for the Slavophone teachers in Murska Sobota. Yet local teachers needed to travel outside of Prekmurje in order to take an oral examination to verify their competence. The assessment took place before special committees in either Maribor (in the former Styria) or Ljubljana (in the former Carniola). There, the candidates had to prove not only sufficient fluency in standard Slovene grammar and proper pronunciation, but also a knowledge of the most important works from the canonical corpus of national literature, especially those commonly present in Slovene school readers. Ironically, while preparing for the exams, they were to use textbooks otherwise used by pupils in the upper grades of elementary schools.<sup data-fn="db52f438-c83c-48d1-ac46-380eca69273e" class="fn"><a href="#db52f438-c83c-48d1-ac46-380eca69273e" id="db52f438-c83c-48d1-ac46-380eca69273e-link">27</a></sup></p>



<p>Slovene officials wanted to intertwine the process of learning the proper Slovene language with the attempts to politically re-educate local teachers who remained in Prekmurje. The civil commissioner even contended that the language courses should take place in Ljubljana or its surroundings. This would enable the teachers to&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>recognize Slovenes as their sincere friends, admire our marvellous homeland and get to know our capital, with all of its ancient and modern attractions. Without thinking, the love for their new homeland, Slovenia, will anchor in their hearts; they should know it!<sup data-fn="37a09d18-f158-4b57-bf16-9a1d8fcc228d" class="fn"><a href="#37a09d18-f158-4b57-bf16-9a1d8fcc228d" id="37a09d18-f158-4b57-bf16-9a1d8fcc228d-link">28</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>While treating local teachers practically in the same manner as their pupils, the civil commissioner believed the course ought to have a sort of “nationally enlightening” component, for this was the only way the teachers would learn standard Slovene with enthusiasm. He also believed that the prevailing broader political and cultural circumstances in Prekmurje were not encouraging for the cultivation of national sentiments. If such courses took place in Murska Sobota, he contended, the participants would stay in touch with Hungarians and “Magyarons” and use only Hungarian to communicate with one another. Furthermore, the local Hungarian intelligentsia would expose the teachers to Hungarian nationalist rhetoric. For that reason, the success of the course would not be certain. In the civil commissioner’s words,&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Above all, the course taking place in Murska Sobota would miss the key moment—the moment of nurturing love for the motherland and sensing Slovene, and at times also Yugoslav, mutuality, the feeling that Prekmurje is merely a twig on the green Slovene branch growing from the majestic Slavic trunk. Just as Hungarians did all they could to suppress Slovene consciousness among teachers in Prekmurje – and unfortunately also among the majority of priests – we have to do all we can to purify them of the Hungarian spirit, tear them out of national unconsciousness and convert them to worthy members of the Slavic nation. Only a nationally aware teacher can stir national consciousness and love for the kinfolk and homeland among the youth. Every teacher can read, write and calculate, even a Magyaron; but only a teacher permeated with love for his kinfolk and homeland can teach in a nationally conscious way.<sup data-fn="3a954a55-b78f-4459-92c6-39e7286ab07f" class="fn"><a href="#3a954a55-b78f-4459-92c6-39e7286ab07f" id="3a954a55-b78f-4459-92c6-39e7286ab07f-link">29</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>The process of linguistic and ideological adaptation was in any case gradual. From the report the School Council of Prekmurje sent to the Higher School Council in Ljubljana in July 1921, it is possible to discern that more than a year and a half after the latter body had issued the first decree related to teaching, a large number of Prekmurje’s teachers had still not managed to successfully pass the Slovene language exam. In Slovene schools, there were as many as 75 teachers that lacked the required certification, while there were 25 in Hungarian schools and two in German ones. Consequently, by the end of 1921, new authorities began to employ harsher re-education measures. In November 1921, for instance, 20 teachers from Prekmurje were replaced with teachers from “Slovenia,” a term which in this case denoted the former Cisleithanian territories under Yugoslav rule. The teachers from Prekmurje were sent across the River Mura to other Slovene territories to learn the language and be resocialized in the new post-Hungarian social and cultural reality. Nevertheless, not all teachers who were ordered to leave Prekmurje consented to depart. As a consequence, the authorities stopped their pay checks. In response, at least one of the teachers, Aleksander Kurz, left for Hungary rather than agreeing to transfer out of Prekmurje.<sup data-fn="a10fc454-53d2-46c8-83f7-3c7ac0742309" class="fn"><a href="#a10fc454-53d2-46c8-83f7-3c7ac0742309" id="a10fc454-53d2-46c8-83f7-3c7ac0742309-link">30</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Gradual transformation of schools in Prekmurje as a continuation of pre-war Slovene nationalists’ rhetoric and practice </h2>



<p>A few weeks before the occupation of Prekmurje actually took place in early August 1919, a concerned Slovene citizen published an article on Prekmurje Slovenes in the Styrian Slovene newspaper <em>Murska straža</em>. He claimed that Slovene compatriots on the Hungarian side lacked any political or economic organization. The sole role of the schools scattered across the region had been “to teach pupils Hungarian and raise them to become loyal renegades.”<sup data-fn="8dea63c0-26ab-42a8-b2b9-04cbe690b851" class="fn"><a href="#8dea63c0-26ab-42a8-b2b9-04cbe690b851" id="8dea63c0-26ab-42a8-b2b9-04cbe690b851-link">31</a></sup> There were very few nationally conscious educated locals in Prekmurje, the author continued, and Slovene national consciousness had hence been better preserved among peasants, regardless of their continual subjection to Hungarian and in some places even to German influence. When it came to Slovene awareness, the situation in Prekmurje was terrible: </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Of approximately 100,000 Slovenes living in Prekmurje, the majority are nationally and politically indifferent, even though the common folk express lively natural intelligence. Schools, offices and the fierce pressure from above created a large number of renegades that had since forever been the strongest pillar of Hungarian exploiters, who had built splendid palaces in Budapest and elsewhere out of Prekmurje Slovene’s spiritual and material abandonment.<sup data-fn="d443dc9b-f26c-49d3-8daa-2ee2fb258d87" class="fn"><a href="#d443dc9b-f26c-49d3-8daa-2ee2fb258d87" id="d443dc9b-f26c-49d3-8daa-2ee2fb258d87-link">32</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>While describing the grim national oppression supposedly taking place in neighbouring Prekmurje, the author repeated the tropes that had been invented and spread by national activists throughout the Late Imperial Austrian era. When discussing rural communities on the language frontier, nineteenth-century Cisleithanian nationalists often uncovered the “national indifference” of locals and the role of schools in their presumed denationalization.<sup data-fn="59889aa6-37de-4885-8055-b012e1575968" class="fn"><a href="#59889aa6-37de-4885-8055-b012e1575968" id="59889aa6-37de-4885-8055-b012e1575968-link">33</a></sup> The post-war temporal and spatial transfer of these tropes to Prekmurje thus should not come as a surprise: the region bordered the former Lower Styria, a stage of vicious pre-war “national struggles” between German and Slovene national activists who fought – most of the time with words – for the hearts and souls of the “indigenous” Lower Styrian population. By mentioning “national indifference” and the role of schools in turning Prekmurje Slovenes into renegades, the author vividly illustrated a certain continuity in the Slovene nationalist worldview and rhetoric that obviously had not vanished with the collapse of Austria-Hungary.<sup data-fn="3727a995-9cb3-4a54-b213-36dac164114c" class="fn"><a href="#3727a995-9cb3-4a54-b213-36dac164114c" id="3727a995-9cb3-4a54-b213-36dac164114c-link">34</a></sup></p>



<p>The mental patterns of the pre-war Slovene national activists must also have steered the Slovene administrators, who began forming the new Yugoslav authority in Prekmurje several weeks later. Indeed, many of the officials, civil servants and teachers who proposed and implemented measures in schools after the region was given to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes at the Paris Peace Conference came directly from the neighbouring Slovene Styria, across the river Mura. Such was, for instance, the case of Srečko Lajnšic, the first civil commissioner in Prekmurje and a former district prefect in the Styrian town of Maribor/Marburg. Another such case was that of the headmaster Cvetko, whose report on the existing schools in Prekmurje strongly influenced the decision makers in Ljubljana. In the first years after the annexation, the Yugoslav government transferred to Prekmurje several dozen teachers and officials from the former Austrian Littoral, where they had been laid off by the Italian authorities that now occupied the territory. As veterans of the pre-1918 Slavic–Italian animosities, they too were familiar with the ethnolinguistic nationalist discourse and consequently considered schools crucial for preventing the locals living at the language frontier from sympathizing or even identifying with the “national enemy.”<sup data-fn="687271ea-6da6-496e-9124-681dd368b6c7" class="fn"><a href="#687271ea-6da6-496e-9124-681dd368b6c7" id="687271ea-6da6-496e-9124-681dd368b6c7-link">35</a></sup></p>



<p>In this sense, the significance ascribed to the language of instruction in Prekmurje encapsulates the continuity between pre-war Slovene Cisleithanian nationalist activities and the post-war transformational efforts of the new Slovene government in Prekmurje. The lack of understanding of the tradition of local literary Slovene – so often expressed by the new Slovene administrators – was grounded in the fact that by the time Austria-Hungary collapsed, the notion of the (standard) Slovene literary language as the national language of Slovenes had already been firmly established in the (former) Cisleithanian crownlands. In the second half of the nineteenth century, Cisleithanian Slovene national activists embraced the idea of preserving and cultivating the Slovene language, declaring its usage in all spheres of life the most crucial prerequisite of national survival. In addition, Cisleithanian promoters of Slovene ethnolinguistic nationalism regarded the individual’s ability to fully express himself in Slovene as a patriotic duty. Many Slovene linguists, writers, poets and journalists thus contributed to the invention of the modern Slovene literary language. Building on the tradition of sixteenth-century Slovene written by Carniolan Protestants and purifying the literary norm of lexical and grammatical influences regarded as German, these Slovene members of the Austrian educated middle class established the highest and most developed form of the Slovene national language that was used in the public as well as private spheres, and in communication with government offices. The Austrian government further facilitated the cultivation of the written Slovene language and its placement on the pedestal of Slovene national symbols by officially recognizing it as a common language of the Slavophones in the Austrian Littoral, Styria, Carniola and Carinthia.<sup data-fn="c104819e-f5d3-4f0a-911d-a2ab8c88f357" class="fn"><a href="#c104819e-f5d3-4f0a-911d-a2ab8c88f357" id="c104819e-f5d3-4f0a-911d-a2ab8c88f357-link">36</a></sup> By 1900, the literary Slovene language was thus already in use as one of the official languages in state offices and in courts, as a language of instruction in many schools, as a regimental language in the army, and as one of many possible languages of daily use declared in decennial censuses. In addition, due to successful national agitation, by 1914 the idea of the Slovene language as a distinctive indicator of Slovene nationality had gained considerable, though uneven, support among the Slavophone population living in those regions.  </p>



<p>For this reason, many Cisletihanian Slovene national activists found the circumstances that they encountered in Prekmurje difficult to accept. After their post-war transfers to Prekmurje, many Slovene officials from the former Cisleithania thus often acted and spoke as if they were on a “civilizing mission,” demanding locals become fluent in the national literary language and adopt a higher level of imported Slovene national culture. Unsurprisingly, the officials’ hostile attitude towards the cultural peculiarities of Prekmurje provoked strong reactions among the local educated Slavophones. To the vast majority of educated locals, the idea of “Sloveneness” that had been invented on the other side of river Mura long before 1919 meant almost nothing. They also did not share the idea that standard literary Slovene was the national language of Slovenes and continued to use and express sympathies for their local literary Slavic language. However, regarded as “unredeemed Slovene brothers” by the nineteenth-century Slovene national activists, many local Slavophones persisted in expressing utterly different loyalties and notions of self-belonging for years, if not for decades, after partition from the Kingdom of Hungary.<sup data-fn="8a5cfdb0-d61e-4c76-acdc-0794e6fbbd3a" class="fn"><a href="#8a5cfdb0-d61e-4c76-acdc-0794e6fbbd3a" id="8a5cfdb0-d61e-4c76-acdc-0794e6fbbd3a-link">37</a></sup></p>



<p>At the end of the day, the verdict of the late-nineteenth-century national activists that schools were sites where pupils ought to be forged into compatriots proved correct. In the long run, Yugoslav schools with Slovenian language of instruction in interwar Prekmurje contributed to the diminishment of bilingualism, traditional loyalties and local categories of identification. The new school curricula inhibited the cultivation of pre-First-World-War collective identifications and contributed to the extinction of the two-centuries-old tradition of the local literary Slavic language. However, on the basis of an analysis of the efforts to “Slovenize” education in Prekmurje, a clear distinction can be identified between a relatively rapid act of political and ideological transition of education agenda on the one hand and a gradual transformation of the existing school network on the other. The normative and ideological transition of education – from the Hungarian to the Yugoslav (Slovenian) system – passed smoothly. Reforms began immediately after the arrival of the Yugoslav authorities. In line with the expectations of the new school administration – based on the premises of ethnolinguistic nationalism – unfit teachers were dismissed. Upon a report by Cvetko and similar views of other education experts sent to Prekmurje by the Ljubljana regional government, in the autumn of 1921 the organisation of the local school network was finally unified with the rest of the “Slovene territories” of Yugoslavia by decrees. Schools were successfully “Slovenized” – but on paper only.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In reality, the process of “Slovenisation” of education was much slower and was not fully completed until the end of the interwar period. In the gradual process of transformation, both the imported Slovene teachers and the re-educated local teachers did indeed become agents of nationalization in Prekmurje. Approximately ten years after the annexation, some former pupils that had been educated in standard literary Slovene in Prekmurje schools were already publicly denouncing their parents’ traditional loyalties and identifications and instead identifying as proud members of the Slovene nation and loyal citizens of Yugoslavia.<sup data-fn="d9434b87-bc3e-45e3-a61a-8c9708105dba" class="fn"><a href="#d9434b87-bc3e-45e3-a61a-8c9708105dba" id="d9434b87-bc3e-45e3-a61a-8c9708105dba-link">38</a></sup> In this sense, the “Slovenian School” accomplished its task. However, the post-1919 transition aspirations, which from the outset focused on the language of instruction and also on keeping only loyal and reliable staff in classrooms, were not entirely successful. Although Slovene was the only official language of instruction, teachers in primary schools still used the local dialect in the first post-1919 decade. Standard Slovene was often simply not understood by pupils in Prekmurje. The most stubborn proponents of the local Slovene literary language were Lutheran pastors and Catholic priests. Lutheran religious instruction in schools in Prekmurje was conducted in the local written tradition until the Axis attack on Yugoslavia in 1941, a practice guaranteed to the Lutheran Church in Prekmurje by King Alexander. The same was the case with Catholic religious instruction. When the authorities ordered that the Catholic textbook for primary schools in the local Slovene dialect be replaced by an edition written in standardized Slovene, the Prekmurje clergy revolted. A political scandal erupted, and the issue of language in Prekmurje schools was debated in the Belgrade Parliament. The conflict between the state school administration and local Catholic priests ended only after the intervention of the Bishop of Maribor, who in 1927 ordered those books in the “Prekmurje dialect” could no longer be used. However, among the local Catholic clergy, final acceptance of the new language did not prevail until the mid-1930s, when a younger generation of priests – locals who had been educated in Slovene seminaries after the Yugoslav annexation – began to work in Prekmurje.<sup data-fn="02e97f81-5e40-4a12-8dda-0411ce95fb30" class="fn"><a href="#02e97f81-5e40-4a12-8dda-0411ce95fb30" id="02e97f81-5e40-4a12-8dda-0411ce95fb30-link">39</a></sup> Similarly, the transformation of the “hearts and minds” of local Prekmurje Slavophone teachers was not entirely successful, despite the re-education efforts. When Prekmurje was occupied by the Hungarian army in April 1941, the older generation of local teachers immediately began to cooperate with the new leadership of the Hungarian Education Department for Prekmurje. During the Second World War, the Hungarian occupation administration used means to organise education in Prekmurje similar to those the Yugoslav administration had used twenty years earlier: the Slovene teachers were dismissed, the local teachers of the older generation who expressed loyalty to the Hungarian administration were left in place, and Hungarian teachers were brought in to fill the vacancies. In Prekmurje schools, Hungarian replaced Slovenian as the language of instruction.<sup data-fn="dded434e-74b5-4ee9-8c42-7b79ff1c2ef7" class="fn"><a href="#dded434e-74b5-4ee9-8c42-7b79ff1c2ef7" id="dded434e-74b5-4ee9-8c42-7b79ff1c2ef7-link">40</a></sup></p>



<p><strong>Jernej Kosi</strong> is an Assistant Professor at the University of Ljubljana and a postdoctoral researcher on the ERC research project NEPOSTRANS at the Institute of Political History in Budapest. He has done research on various dimensions of Slovenian and Habsburg history and published books and articles on nationalism, World War I, and post-imperial transition. </p>


<ol class="wp-block-footnotes"><li id="fe07b0ae-9be6-4429-8b8b-9ce92be89f46">The author gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P6-0235 and research project J6-2573). I would like to thank Daša Ličen, Oliver Pejić and Rok Stergar for their suggestions, help and advice. All translations are my own. <a href="#fe07b0ae-9be6-4429-8b8b-9ce92be89f46-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 1 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d8a79b60-530b-4572-a065-44ba455f133c">On the negotiations over Prekmurje at the Paris Peace Conference, see Rudi Kyovsky: Trianonska pogodba in slovensko-ogrska meja [The Treaty of Trianon and the Slovene–Hungarian Border]. In: Janko Liška (ed.): Revolucionarno vrenje v Pomurju v letih 1918–1920 [Revolutionary unrests in Prekmurje, 1918–1919]. Murska Sobota 1981, pp. 236–259; Bogo Grafenauer: Slovenska Koroška v diplomatski igri leta 1919 [Slovene Carinthia in the diplomatic game in 1919]. In: Janko Pleterski (ed.): Koroški plebiscit [The Carinthian plebiscite]. Ljubljana 1970, pp. 295–378; Andrej Mitrović: Razgraničenje Jugoslavije sa Mađarskom i Rumunijom 1919–1920 [Boundary delimitation of Yugoslavia with Hungary and Romania]. Novi Sad 1975. On the Paris Peace Conference, see Margaret MacMillan: Peacemakers. The Paris Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War. London 2001; Volker Prott: The Politics of Self-Determination. Remaking Territories and National Identities in Europe, 1917–1923. Oxford 2016.  <a href="#d8a79b60-530b-4572-a065-44ba455f133c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 2 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8500dafd-2d6d-4406-8925-787099c16982">Jernej Kosi: The Imagined Slovene Nation and Local Categories of Identification. “Slovenes” in the Kingdom of Hungary and Postwar Prekmurje. In: Austrian History Yearbook<em> </em>49 (2018), pp. 87–102. <a href="#8500dafd-2d6d-4406-8925-787099c16982-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 3 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c76f65a4-5e03-4861-8063-280a81e832f9">On ethnolinguistic nationalism, see Tomasz Kamusella: The History of Normative Opposition of ‘Language versus Dialect’. From Its Graeco-Latin Origin to Central Europe’s Ethnolinguistic Nation-States. In: Colloquia Humanistica 5 (2016), pp.164–188; idem.: The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe. Basingstoke 2009. Following Tomasz Kamusella’s notion of ethnolinguistic nationalism, I regard Slovene ethnolinguistic nationalism as a rhetoric and practice that draws on the idea of the postulated Slovene nation being associated with the Slovene-speaking population. It emerged in 1848, when the Carinthian priest Matija Majar emulated contemporaneous expressions of German nationalism that dominated the public debate and claimed that the usage of the Slovene language was a distinctive cultural feature of Slovenes, that is, of people densely inhabiting Habsburg lands between the upper Adriatic and western Hungary. As the very first Slovene nationalist activist, Majar built his concept of a separate Slovene population upon the linguistic classification of Slavic languages devised by Bartholomeus/Jernej Kopitar; see Jernej Kosi: Kako je nastal slovenski narod<em> </em>[How the Slovene Nation Was Created]. Ljubljana 2013. On the emergence of the Slovene national movement, see also Joachim Hösler: Von Krain zu Slowenien. Die Anfänge der nationalen Differenzierungsprozesse in Krain und der Untersteiermark von der Aufklärung bis zur Revolution 1768 bis 1848. Munich 2006. <a href="#c76f65a4-5e03-4861-8063-280a81e832f9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 4 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5a3d547e-3ce2-4334-a3e0-4d12fa137675">Matija Slavič, the member of the Yugoslav delegation responsible for Prekmurje, later vividly described the exhausting process of preparing the material that was later used to substantiate the annexation. See Matija Slavič: Naše Prekmurje [Our Prekmurje]. Murska Sobota 1999. <a href="#5a3d547e-3ce2-4334-a3e0-4d12fa137675-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 5 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cd05b830-abf1-4bf1-b1ba-8f37879a18a6">Miroslav Kokolj: Prekmurski Slovenci od nacionalne osvoboditve do fašistične okupacije 1919–1941 [Slovenes in Prekmurje from National Liberation to Fascist Occupation 1919–1941]. Murska Sobota 1984, pp. 19–33. On measures taken against Hungarians in Prekmurje, see Attila Kovács: Številčni razvoj prekmurskih Madžarov v 20. stoletju [Demographic Trends of the Prekmurje Hungarians in the Twentieth Century]. In: Razprave in gradivo: revija za narodnostna vprašanja [Treatises and Documents, Journal of Ethnic Studies] 48–49 (2006), pp. 6–36.  <a href="#cd05b830-abf1-4bf1-b1ba-8f37879a18a6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 6 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e1e35f87-537e-4087-bcf7-3ee88b582d76">The Archives of the Republic of Slovenia (henceforth: ARS), SI AS 53, 20, Prekmurje 20/49, Višji šolski svet v Ljubljani [Higher school council in Ljubljana] (henceforth: Prekmurje 20/49), Šolske razmere v Prekmurju [School Conditions in Prekmurje] (henceforth: School Conditions).  <a href="#e1e35f87-537e-4087-bcf7-3ee88b582d76-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 7 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f29e8622-03e0-4d43-92b1-35ff92d50e63">As I seek to demonstrate in the following pages, the Slovene post-war makeover of the school network in Prekmurje corresponds with the notion of “transformation” as a “more or less enduring process which is set in motion long before a remarkable ‘turn’ takes place and which ends with a certain, sometimes even significant, temporary distance to this moment.” Florian Kührer-Wielach, Sarah Lemmen: Transformation in East Central Europe. 1918 and 1989. A Comparative Approach. In: European Review of History. Revue européenne d’histoire 23 (2016), pp. 573–579, here: p. 575.  <a href="#f29e8622-03e0-4d43-92b1-35ff92d50e63-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 8 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f4e6916b-16e6-4875-9a0d-6b0d4a029052">ARS, SI AS 53, 20, Prekmurje 20/49, School Conditions (4–13 September). <a href="#f4e6916b-16e6-4875-9a0d-6b0d4a029052-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 9 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="616a68bc-791e-4fe7-b528-3a2d69b65381">Original: “slabše kot narod, o kakem slovničnem znanju, pa se sploh ne da govoriti. Kljub temu bi jih mogel višji šolski svet obdržati na njihovih mestih, eventuelno tudi premestiti, a pod pogojem, oziroma z neizprosno kategorično zahtevo, da se takoj lotijo učenja pravilne slovenščine ter položijo čez en ali dve leti dopolnilne izpit iz slovenščine sicer se odpuste iz službe. /…/ ker ti ljudje so bili zaverovani samo v nobel madžarščino, in so glede naše slovenske in leposlovne literature pravcati ignorantje. Ker so naši ljudje in z ozirom na to, da imajo mnogi kopico nepreskrbljenih otrok jih ne kaže odpustiti to bi bilo nehumano. Dobro delo usmiljenosti bo, če jim segnemo pod pazduho in jim pomagamo.” ARS, SI AS 53, 20, Prekmurje 20/49, School Conditions (4–13 September). <a href="#616a68bc-791e-4fe7-b528-3a2d69b65381-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 10 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="de36149e-ed45-425c-8fe0-53353259f88f">ARS, SI AS 53, 20, Prekmurje 20/49, School Conditions (21 September). <a href="#de36149e-ed45-425c-8fe0-53353259f88f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 11 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9343cec4-d4c0-43a0-877a-01f9c5a82f0d">Ibid. <a href="#9343cec4-d4c0-43a0-877a-01f9c5a82f0d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 12 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1d58ad34-5285-47e8-8768-968e1720b969">Original: “S pravilno t.j. našo književno slovenščino bi ondotni narod najprej dvignili kulturno ter ga asimilovali sebi – saj je veja našega debla.” Ibid. <a href="#1d58ad34-5285-47e8-8768-968e1720b969-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 13 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9c369046-d892-4bfb-b831-5ff953c70e20">Original: “/n/e pa morda v kakem “prekmurskem” narečju. Ljudsko mnenje je, da se otroci tega “narečja” nauče doma, v šoli se naj uče pravilne slovenščine.” Položaj šolstva in učiteljstva v Prekmurju [The Condition of the Educational System and the Teaching Staff in Prekmurje]. In: Učiteljski tovariš<em> </em>[Teacher’s Companion], 8 October 1919, p. 2.  <a href="#9c369046-d892-4bfb-b831-5ff953c70e20-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 14 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e220be3a-7b85-4697-9c5e-7fcddec3ba49">Original: “Samoumevno mora biti učni jezik slovenski in to pismena slovenščina. Prav nikake potrebe in nikakega vzroka ni, da bi uvajali v šole prekmurski dialekt.” Iz Prekmurja [From Prekmurje]. In: Jugoslavija [Yugoslavia], 11 October 1919, p. 1. <a href="#e220be3a-7b85-4697-9c5e-7fcddec3ba49-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 15 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="31ae72db-8893-4288-9754-4224d339887f"> Original: Prekmurci so “živeli dolga stoletja kulturno in politično ločeni od nas. Vse ostale slovenske pokrajine so imele ozke stike med seboj in v splošnem isto zgodovino, in baš to je vzrok, da so n. pr. štajerski Slovenci brez težkoč sprejeli skupni književni jezik. Medtem pa so bili ogrski Slovenci odtrgani od našega razvoja in jim je bilo narečje več kot je nam; oni so videli v njem tisto, kar smo mi videli v našem književnem jeziku. Imeli so svoje pisatelje, svojo književnost. To <em>zavest</em> imajo še danes – izza osvobojenja. /…/ Res je, da se ljudstvo po večini veseli združenja z Jugoslavijo, toda njegov pojem Jugoslavije je malo drugačen kot je naš, ki smo vsled lepega prosvetnega razvoja vcepili ljudstvu občenarodno zavest in globlje politično naziranje. Prekmurci (izvzeti so v resnici narodnozavedni krogi) še se vedno boje Štajercev, Kranjcev, Srbov itd., kar bo jim sicer polagoma minilo, toda za prosvetno izenačenje je treba časa in dobrih sredstev. Eno teh sredstev je, da se jim deloma pusti narečje v šolah, da pa se z druge strani smotreno uvaja skupni književni jezik. Ljudstvo bo sčasoma samo čutilo potrebo, da se v javnosti opusti narečje, toda dejstvo je, da te potrebe zaenkrat ne čuti, ker je <em>ne more </em>čutiti.” Narečje v prekmurskih šolah [The dialect in Prekmurje schools]. In: Murska straža [The Watch on the Mura], 4 October 1919, p. 1. <a href="#31ae72db-8893-4288-9754-4224d339887f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 16 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5001a64a-82d3-4cff-830e-844684fa585c">Kosi: The Imagined Slovene Nation, pp. 95–100. <a href="#5001a64a-82d3-4cff-830e-844684fa585c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 17 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1a877260-7276-41a6-8639-82eb34a893f3">On the Prekmurje Slovene literary language, see Marko Jesenšek: Poglavja iz zgodovine prekmurskega knjižnega jezika [Chapters from the history of the Prekmurje Slovene literary language]. Maribor 2013; Marc L. Greenberg: Prekmurščina med slovanskimi jeziki [Prekmurje language among Slavic languages]. In: Marko Jesenšek (ed.): Prekmurska slovenska slovnica – Vend nyelvtan [Prekmurje Slovene Grammar – Vend nyelvtan]. Maribor 2013, pp. 401–412; Martina Orožen: Prekmurski knjižni jezik [Literary Prekmurje Slovene]. In: ibid., pp. 413–428; Vilko Novak: Slovar stare knjižne prekmurščine [Dictionary of the Old Literary Prekmurje Language]. Ljubljana 2007, pp. V–VIII.  <a href="#1a877260-7276-41a6-8639-82eb34a893f3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 18 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c4fa97d8-09dc-4377-85f2-8b48e963a6db">Ivan Jerič: Zgodovina madžarizacije v Prekmurju [History of Magyarisation in Prekmurje]. Murska Sobota 2001, pp. 42–50. <a href="#c4fa97d8-09dc-4377-85f2-8b48e963a6db-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 19 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="652f72d4-e999-4c63-bf10-1cee247ab241">According to Hungarian statistical data, in 1910 the rate of literacy in “Prekmurje” stood at 61–62 %. Miha Štampah: Šolstvo in pismenost v večjezičnem prostoru med rekama Rabo in Muro od 1870 do 1910: diplomsko delo [Education and Literacy in the Multilingual Area between the Rivers Raba and Mura from 1870 to 1910: Graduation Thesis]. Lendava 2016.  <a href="#652f72d4-e999-4c63-bf10-1cee247ab241-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 20 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a96bd485-f467-407a-b36b-3ef71cf13748"> On the role of the Hungarian state and the local Catholic and Lutheran clergy in shaping collective identifications in pre-1919 “Prekmurje”, see Kosi: The Imagined Slovene Nation, pp. 95–102. <a href="#a96bd485-f467-407a-b36b-3ef71cf13748-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 21 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6127ee81-164f-4530-b185-5d0c2048fe6f">ARS, SI AS 53, 20, Prekmurje 20/49, 236/1919. <a href="#6127ee81-164f-4530-b185-5d0c2048fe6f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 22 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7faac226-3652-4fff-8db5-c5ea662da19c">Ibid. The exception to the rule were four Hungarian teachers in schools with predominantly Hungarian pupils, who were expected to stay and later learn Slovene. In fact, in the subsequent months, many Hungarian teachers were indeed fired or decided to leave Prekmurje. As a result, as late as March 1920, Prekmurje still lacked 53 teachers. Kokolj: Prekmurski Slovenci, p. 28.  <a href="#7faac226-3652-4fff-8db5-c5ea662da19c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 23 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9b1748ff-42b7-4c58-a893-58510db71864">Ibid., p. 289. <a href="#9b1748ff-42b7-4c58-a893-58510db71864-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 24 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="34f64df8-e2de-4667-a171-f1c648cf8202">See for instance ARS, SI AS 53, 20, Prekmurje 20/49, 14806/1919, Ureditev prekmurskih osnovnih šol [The Regulation of the Prekmurje Elementary Schools], 24 December 1921. <a href="#34f64df8-e2de-4667-a171-f1c648cf8202-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 25 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="34fd2f07-0c91-47bf-8dc4-44bf378df78e"> Regional Archives Maribor (henceforth: RAM), sig. 1133004/1, p. 43. <a href="#34fd2f07-0c91-47bf-8dc4-44bf378df78e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 26 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="db52f438-c83c-48d1-ac46-380eca69273e">RAM, sig. 1133004/6, 281. <a href="#db52f438-c83c-48d1-ac46-380eca69273e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 27 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="37a09d18-f158-4b57-bf16-9a1d8fcc228d">Original: “/s/poznali v Slovencih svoje iskrene prijatelje, bi se divili naši prekrasni domovini in spoznali bi našo prestolnico z vsemi njenimi starinskimi in modernimi zanimivostmi. Ne vede se jim bo usidrala v njih srcih ljubezen do nove domovine Slovenije, naj jo le spoznajo!” ARS, SI AS 53, 20, Prekmurje 20/49, Prekmurje: ureditev šolstva; počitniški tečaj [Prekmurje: The Organization of Educational System; Holiday Course].  <a href="#37a09d18-f158-4b57-bf16-9a1d8fcc228d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 28 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3a954a55-b78f-4459-92c6-39e7286ab07f">Original: “Vrhu tega bi tečaj v Murski Soboti popolnoma pogrešal glavni moment – moment vzgoje domovinske ljubezni in čuta slovenske in pri tem in onim tudi jugoslovanske vzajemnosti, čuta, da je Prekmurec mladika na zeleni slovenski veji, ki raste na mogočnem slovanskem deblu. Kakor so Madžari storili vse, da so zatrli čut slovenske zavednosti prekmurskih učiteljev – žal tudi v pretežni meri večini duhovnikov – tako moramo mi storiti vse, da jih očistimo madžarskega duha, iztrgamo iz narodne nezavednosti in jih spreobrnemo, da postanejo vredni člani slovanskega naroda. Le narodno zaveden učitelj zamore vzbujati v mladini narodno zavest in ljubezen do rodu in domovine. Čitati, pisati in računati uči vsak učitelj, tudi madžaron; ali narodno zavedno vzgojevati zamore le učitelj, ki ga prešinja ljubezen do rodu in domovine.” Ibid.  <a href="#3a954a55-b78f-4459-92c6-39e7286ab07f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 29 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a10fc454-53d2-46c8-83f7-3c7ac0742309">RAM, sig. 1133004/6, 15131, Seznam učnih oseb, ki se iz službenih ozirov zamenjajo iz Prekmurja v Slovenijo in obratno [The list of teaching staff who will be transferred due to professional reasons from Prekmurje in Slovenia and vice versa]. <a href="#a10fc454-53d2-46c8-83f7-3c7ac0742309-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 30 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8dea63c0-26ab-42a8-b2b9-04cbe690b851"> Original: “Šole so imele doslej edino razlogo, da nauče deco madžarskega jezika in jo vzgoje za zveste renegate.” Prekmurski Slovenci [Prekmurje Slovenes]. In: Murska straža, 21 June 1919, p. 1. <a href="#8dea63c0-26ab-42a8-b2b9-04cbe690b851-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 31 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d443dc9b-f26c-49d3-8daa-2ee2fb258d87">“Od približno 100.000 Slovencev,ki žive v Prekmurju,je največji del narodno in politično indiferenten, čeprav kaže ljudstvo živo prirodno inteligenco. Šole, uradi in silni pritisk od zgoraj je ustvaril veliko število renegatov,kiso bili vedno najmočnejši steber madžarskih izkoriščevalcev, kateri so iz duševne in gmotne zapuščenosti prekmurskega Slovenca zidali sijajne palačev v Budimpešti in drugod.” Ibid.  <a href="#d443dc9b-f26c-49d3-8daa-2ee2fb258d87-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 32 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="59889aa6-37de-4885-8055-b012e1575968">Pieter Judson: Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria. Cambridge (MA) 2006; Pieter M. Judson: The Habsburg Empire. Cambridge (MA) 2016, pp. 302–309.  <a href="#59889aa6-37de-4885-8055-b012e1575968-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 33 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3727a995-9cb3-4a54-b213-36dac164114c">On the pre-1918 rhetoric, practices and consequences of ethnolinguistic nationalism in Lower Styria, see Janez Cvirn: Das “Festungsdreieck”. Zur politischen Orientierung der Deutschen in der Untersteiermark (1861–1914). Vienna 2016; Filip Čuček: Svoji k svojim. Na poti k dokončni nacionalni razmejitvi na Spodnjem Štajerskem v 19. stoletju [Each to Their Own. On the Road to the Final National Delineation in Lower Styria in the 19th Century]. Ljubljana 2016; Karin Almasy: Wie aus Marburgern “Slowenen” und “Deutsche” wurden. Bad Radkersburg, Graz 2014; Pieter Judson: Nationalist Emotion as Fin-de-Siècle Legal Defense? A 1908 Trial in Celje/Cilli. In: Acta Histriae 21 (2013) 4, 735–747; Martin Moll: Kein Burgfrieden: Der deutsch-slowenische Nationalitätenkonflikt in der Steiermark 1900–1918. Innsbruck, Vienna, Bozen 2007.  <a href="#3727a995-9cb3-4a54-b213-36dac164114c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 34 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="687271ea-6da6-496e-9124-681dd368b6c7">Andrej Vovko: Nekateri vidiki življenja primorskih priseljencev v Prekmurje med svetovnima vojnama [Some Aspects of the Life of the Primorje Immigrants to Prekmurje Between the Two World Wars]. In:<em> </em>Dve domovini – Two Homelands<em> </em>24 (2016), pp.187–204.  <a href="#687271ea-6da6-496e-9124-681dd368b6c7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 35 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c104819e-f5d3-4f0a-911d-a2ab8c88f357">On the role of the Austrian state in the creation of a special Slovene “ethnic category” and the recognition of the Slovene language as a national language of Slovenes, see Rok Stergar and Tamara Scheer: Ethnic Boxes: The Unintended Consequences of Habsburg Bureaucratic Classification. In: Nationalities Papers 46 (2018), pp. 575–591. <a href="#c104819e-f5d3-4f0a-911d-a2ab8c88f357-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 36 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8a5cfdb0-d61e-4c76-acdc-0794e6fbbd3a">Kokolj: Prekmurski Slovenci, pp. 286–295. Janko Liška: Porajanje in rast narodne zavesti prekmurskih Slovencev [The Emergence and Growth of National Consciousness among Prekmurje Slovenes]. In: Janko Liška (ed.): Revolucionarno vrenje v Pomurju v letih 1918–1920 [Revolutionary Unrest in Prekmurje, 1918–1919]. Murska Sobota 1981, pp. 260–300, here: pp. 273–279.  <a href="#8a5cfdb0-d61e-4c76-acdc-0794e6fbbd3a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 37 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d9434b87-bc3e-45e3-a61a-8c9708105dba">See, for instance, Kokolj: Prekmurski Slovenci, pp. 336–340. <a href="#d9434b87-bc3e-45e3-a61a-8c9708105dba-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 38 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="02e97f81-5e40-4a12-8dda-0411ce95fb30">Miroslav Kokolj, Bela Horvat: Prekmurski šolstvo. Od začetka reformacije do zloma fašizma [Schooling in Prekmurje. From the Beginning of the Reformation to the Collapse of Fascism]. Murska Sobota 1977, pp. 324–333.  <a href="#02e97f81-5e40-4a12-8dda-0411ce95fb30-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 39 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="dded434e-74b5-4ee9-8c42-7b79ff1c2ef7">Ibid., pp. 381–388. <a href="#dded434e-74b5-4ee9-8c42-7b79ff1c2ef7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 40 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li></ol><p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/slovene-ethnolinguistic-nationalism-as-rhetoric-and-practice-in-post-imperial-school-administration-in-prekmurje/">Slovene Ethnolinguistic Nationalism as Rhetoric and Practice in Post-Imperial School Administration in Prekmurje </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<title>Bohemia’s Eastern Border in Transition, 1918–1919 </title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/bohemias-eastern-border-in-transition-1918-1919/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 01 Mar 2024 10:00:03 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Wissenschaft]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=825</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Ségolène Plyer, Université de Strasbourg Introduction The passage of supranational empires to national democracies at the end of the First World War has recently been the subject of a plethora of publications. Even if these historiographies are still in the making, one can safely assert that they stress the importance of contexts, actors and representations [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/bohemias-eastern-border-in-transition-1918-1919/">Bohemia’s Eastern Border in Transition, 1918–1919 </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p>Ségolène Plyer,<sup data-fn="6d9f18c2-aade-411e-831b-a80a03540f87" class="fn"><a href="#6d9f18c2-aade-411e-831b-a80a03540f87" id="6d9f18c2-aade-411e-831b-a80a03540f87-link">1</a></sup> Université de Strasbourg</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Introduction</h2>



<p>The passage of supranational empires to national democracies at the end of the First World War has recently been the subject of a plethora of publications.<sup data-fn="c956db5d-7966-4557-985d-1343eee5a975" class="fn"><a href="#c956db5d-7966-4557-985d-1343eee5a975" id="c956db5d-7966-4557-985d-1343eee5a975-link">2</a></sup> Even if these historiographies are still in the making, one can safely assert that they stress the importance of contexts, actors and representations in a situation of rapid transformations brought about by the sudden, quite unplanned break-up of empires, in this case the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Thus, regional, non-central territories take on a new status. How they and their inhabitants were involved in the building of the subsequent Central European states may shed new light on this process. </p>



<p>The proclamation of the First Czechoslovak Republic on 28 October 1918<sup data-fn="3e4e7797-0619-4204-8630-7b5144eb1773" class="fn"><a href="#3e4e7797-0619-4204-8630-7b5144eb1773" id="3e4e7797-0619-4204-8630-7b5144eb1773-link">3</a></sup> created a country <em>ex nihilo</em>. Territorial control proved to be a major challenge for the new state.<sup data-fn="e1f88182-bc7b-4a4d-af43-35983c6d84d3" class="fn"><a href="#e1f88182-bc7b-4a4d-af43-35983c6d84d3" id="e1f88182-bc7b-4a4d-af43-35983c6d84d3-link">4</a></sup> While the integration of Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia was partly violent,<sup data-fn="95c8a37b-1ba4-445c-98ab-4ff60f462678" class="fn"><a href="#95c8a37b-1ba4-445c-98ab-4ff60f462678" id="95c8a37b-1ba4-445c-98ab-4ff60f462678-link">5</a></sup> the western (Czech) lands saw less trouble. Nevertheless, the immediate post-war period was marked by tensions. The Republic was highly criticized in a variety of ways, by citizens hostile to its liberal features, by others nostalgic for the Empire, and by the secessionists in the German-speaking border districts in November and December 1918. Nevertheless, the situation was pacified within a few months. Numerous arguments have been put forward in order to explain this, ranging from military occupation of the border to acceptance of a regime guaranteeing national affirmation, &#8222;the democratic idea&#8220;, &#8222;social legislation&#8220; and &#8222;cultural progress&#8220;.<sup data-fn="86b53c7f-6470-4208-9595-6b6f6a22e282" class="fn"><a href="#86b53c7f-6470-4208-9595-6b6f6a22e282" id="86b53c7f-6470-4208-9595-6b6f6a22e282-link">6</a></sup> Beyond general explanations, the few existing studies on sub-regional situations show that reactions in the young Republic were far from homogenous.<sup data-fn="b0e9f92b-b667-4ea2-a04c-47ee33ceba14" class="fn"><a href="#b0e9f92b-b667-4ea2-a04c-47ee33ceba14" id="b0e9f92b-b667-4ea2-a04c-47ee33ceba14-link">7</a></sup></p>



<p>In order to discover more about the dynamics of local experiences, we will adopt a dual perspective on the changes between the end of the Great War and the second part of the year 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles and the first social measures of the Republic entered into force. The first perspective focuses on the re-organization of the state administration in Bohemia: if the transition between empire and nation state went comparatively smoothly, it was largely because this administration stayed in place after the war. But this perspective, reinforced by files from the National Archive in Prague,<sup data-fn="0acb48ec-305b-4506-9eab-0b4c909b9fee" class="fn"><a href="#0acb48ec-305b-4506-9eab-0b4c909b9fee" id="0acb48ec-305b-4506-9eab-0b4c909b9fee-link">8</a></sup> is hardly able to show local dynamics often decisive for arrangements or – on the contrary – escalations leading to serious conflicts. From a second perspective, we will analyse how the base political elite experienced the changes in Eastern Bohemia (our usual field of work). Diverse sources, such as the press, chronicles, and rare published memoirs will help reconstruct the expectations and strategies of local actors from the southern episcopal, Czech-speaking city of Hradec Králové/Königgrätz to the northern German-speaking textile town of Trutnov/Trautenau. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Ensuring change of sovereignty without revolution </h2>



<p>The proclamation of the Czechoslovak Republic by the National Committee (<em>Národní výbor</em>) on 28 October 1918 in Prague took public opinion by surprise. While the Austro-Hungarian army was disbanding, a &#8222;State of the Czechs and Slovaks&#8220; was founded on the territory of the Czech and Slovakian provinces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (plus Subcarpathian Ruthenia). The future president, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, had prepared the State with the Entente and could count on the support of the American president Wilson.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A century later, it is striking to note how easily the new state could form in the area formerly administrated by Austria, that is, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesian Moravia, as in the case of Bohemia within a few weeks between 28 October and Christmas 1918. The term &#8222;revolution&#8220; seems to be ill suited, even if it has sometimes been used to describe the establishment of the First Republic. Furthermore, contemporaries largely rejected it, some out of fear of Bolshevism, others out of disappointment with what they considered to be the socio-economic inadequacies of the new state, a liberal democracy that to them was insufficiently social.<sup data-fn="da08f38f-185e-4602-a02a-aefe64c67736" class="fn"><a href="#da08f38f-185e-4602-a02a-aefe64c67736" id="da08f38f-185e-4602-a02a-aefe64c67736-link">9</a></sup> The concept of &#8222;transition&#8220; which, after 1989, dominated the studies on the exodus of communism from Central and Eastern Europe seems better suited than &#8222;revolution&#8220; to describe the political changes in 1918 and the years thereafter. First used to describe how the former Eastern Bloc countries adopted the market economy, this concept has since been expanded to new geographical areas<sup data-fn="55e748db-1b22-4b2a-b15d-6f5ae9738a46" class="fn"><a href="#55e748db-1b22-4b2a-b15d-6f5ae9738a46" id="55e748db-1b22-4b2a-b15d-6f5ae9738a46-link">10</a></sup> and other areas of human activity, especially concerning administration in developing countries facing thorough transformations in their political-economic orientation.<sup data-fn="2903413f-3084-4864-9440-714754b3217f" class="fn"><a href="#2903413f-3084-4864-9440-714754b3217f" id="2903413f-3084-4864-9440-714754b3217f-link">11</a></sup> Indeed, the ability of the administration to transform itself has proven to be one of the key factors in the change of sovereignty from Empires to the building of new states after 1918.<sup data-fn="976c4509-95ca-423c-9b90-21c17d38513e" class="fn"><a href="#976c4509-95ca-423c-9b90-21c17d38513e" id="976c4509-95ca-423c-9b90-21c17d38513e-link">12</a></sup></p>



<p>Enthusiasm dominated as the Bohemian province learned of the proclamation of the Republic: to the prospect of the end of the war was added the birth of a long-desired state, considered a &#8222;national liberation&#8220; of the Czechs. On 30 October, Max Julius von Coudenhove, governor of the Bohemian kingdom, had given way to the vice-governor Jan Kosina, a Czech. After some hesitation, the military command refrained from using the non-Czech troops stationed in the country.<sup data-fn="0622112c-5261-4caf-b93f-07626e69c58f" class="fn"><a href="#0622112c-5261-4caf-b93f-07626e69c58f" id="0622112c-5261-4caf-b93f-07626e69c58f-link">13</a></sup> But if the path was clear for the National Committee, the situation spiralled out of control &#8222;in the chaos of the first days&#8220;,<sup data-fn="fe40eacc-67c5-42ff-a783-2f9fa814a6fc" class="fn"><a href="#fe40eacc-67c5-42ff-a783-2f9fa814a6fc" id="fe40eacc-67c5-42ff-a783-2f9fa814a6fc-link">14</a></sup> with a procession of troubles accompanying the removal of imperial insignia. These disturbances, sometimes serious, were only seldom a matter for the state administration on the local level<em> </em>(called the “political administration”)<em>,</em> and most of them are not reflected in our sources. They have been finely analysed elsewhere.<sup data-fn="16568d8e-76e9-482b-b3e0-2027b5af8aa0" class="fn"><a href="#16568d8e-76e9-482b-b3e0-2027b5af8aa0" id="16568d8e-76e9-482b-b3e0-2027b5af8aa0-link">15</a></sup> A strong trend emerges: the perpetrators of violence, provided they went beyond the food riot, had more or less confused views about establishing the new regime and redefining the national community. However, they did not show principled hostility to the Republic<sup data-fn="aafcfb70-5907-4f74-90da-6a8185ff61a9" class="fn"><a href="#aafcfb70-5907-4f74-90da-6a8185ff61a9" id="aafcfb70-5907-4f74-90da-6a8185ff61a9-link">16</a></sup> – on the contrary. </p>



<p>Since the slogan of the National Committee, addressed to public authorities, was to maintain &#8222;public tranquillity&#8220;,<sup data-fn="45e8b811-be98-4be7-ace8-13c49f53d2ce" class="fn"><a href="#45e8b811-be98-4be7-ace8-13c49f53d2ce" id="45e8b811-be98-4be7-ace8-13c49f53d2ce-link">17</a></sup> the troubles that arose had to be quickly stamped out.<sup data-fn="dcd567ef-0d8a-4264-9340-312b56d6e5d7" class="fn"><a href="#dcd567ef-0d8a-4264-9340-312b56d6e5d7" id="dcd567ef-0d8a-4264-9340-312b56d6e5d7-link">18</a></sup> Pending the peace negotiations, the new state had to prove itself able to fulfil its missions. The National Committee, then after 14 November the first Czechoslovak government, headed by Karel Kramář, followed a strategy of appeasement, including when disturbances arose in Bohemia between nationalities or took an anti-Semitic turn.<sup data-fn="50594fc2-a193-4e3d-9f66-113bf298c904" class="fn"><a href="#50594fc2-a193-4e3d-9f66-113bf298c904" id="50594fc2-a193-4e3d-9f66-113bf298c904-link">19</a></sup> In the period before a new constitution was established, which did not happen until January 1920, the authorities sought to ensure the continuity of the law<sup data-fn="7e78d496-52d5-4856-b771-7b5069207ee7" class="fn"><a href="#7e78d496-52d5-4856-b771-7b5069207ee7" id="7e78d496-52d5-4856-b771-7b5069207ee7-link">20</a></sup> and administration.<sup data-fn="78ff8575-dd54-47c6-b408-2b51c7dd105e" class="fn"><a href="#78ff8575-dd54-47c6-b408-2b51c7dd105e" id="78ff8575-dd54-47c6-b408-2b51c7dd105e-link">21</a></sup> Their objective was to contain opposition within the framework of the institutions, particularly that of the political administration. The latter, therefore, sought to present itself as a guarantor of profound political changes and as a purifier of negative Austrian heritage. </p>



<p>As the first Czechoslovakian administrative circulars in the National Archives files assert, unpopular restrictions and control measures during the war were associated with the Austrian Empire, while the new Republic was “the triumph of national principles and, moreover, of democracy”. The political administration had to convince the citizens of its being not at the service of an “old state more and more estranged to the people’s will” and “the will of its nations”, but an offshoot of national sovereignty.<sup data-fn="11ebbf89-e81b-4c6a-acf6-eadea2aaaf58" class="fn"><a href="#11ebbf89-e81b-4c6a-acf6-eadea2aaaf58" id="11ebbf89-e81b-4c6a-acf6-eadea2aaaf58-link">22</a></sup> In the “Czech or mixed districts”, the officials were asked to encourage “the [Czech] nation” to fulfil “its centuries-old dream” (of building a state).<sup data-fn="4f830104-fe09-435b-b41a-ea22cbcb26c6" class="fn"><a href="#4f830104-fe09-435b-b41a-ea22cbcb26c6" id="4f830104-fe09-435b-b41a-ea22cbcb26c6-link">23</a></sup></p>



<p>In fact, competent Czech speakers had gradually populated the Bohemian administration, which had been bilingual since the 1890s, even if they rarely reached the top of the imperial hierarchy.<sup data-fn="538344bd-1cd6-45b1-becc-04406579a149" class="fn"><a href="#538344bd-1cd6-45b1-becc-04406579a149" id="538344bd-1cd6-45b1-becc-04406579a149-link">24</a></sup> In response to the cleansing demanded on the local level by the Czech National District Committees (<em>Okresní</em> <em>Národní Výbory</em> or ONV), often constituted by trained managers of national Czech associations, foremost the <em>Sokol</em> (Falcons) gymnastics society, prefects (<em>hejtmani</em>, German <em>Hauptmänner</em>) who were unpopular or too closely linked to the old regime were discharged. They constituted 10% of the total,<sup data-fn="8a7ed502-9e0e-4144-a857-76c3ee6032af" class="fn"><a href="#8a7ed502-9e0e-4144-a857-76c3ee6032af" id="8a7ed502-9e0e-4144-a857-76c3ee6032af-link">25</a></sup> among them the prefect of Plzeň/Pilsen, who had had demonstrators shot at, and his colleague from Hradec Králové, Josef Smutný. As soon as 29 October 1918, the latter phoned to report that  </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>The <em>Národní okresní výbor</em> just dropped me off because I have exposed myself too much in the interest of the Austrian state and [out of?] patriotism. I am allegedly dangerous to public peace and order. My deputy, Chief Commissioner Pacovský, would take over my duties.<sup data-fn="6f0f896d-a781-4092-9cc9-4717044684b2" class="fn"><a href="#6f0f896d-a781-4092-9cc9-4717044684b2" id="6f0f896d-a781-4092-9cc9-4717044684b2-link">26</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>The episcopal city had been shaken by strikes throughout 1918. The rural surroundings were heavily hit by grain requisitions twice as high as the year before, which were said to go to Berlin. At the beginning of October, schools were shut down for two weeks due to Spanish flu’. Not rarely, the disease proved deadly among children and young people lacking proper food and heating.<sup data-fn="413e50cb-3cae-44c6-a57f-1474f6c8f893" class="fn"><a href="#413e50cb-3cae-44c6-a57f-1474f6c8f893" id="413e50cb-3cae-44c6-a57f-1474f6c8f893-link">27</a></sup> The Czech Social Democrats organized a “giant” demonstration on 14 October which gave “our city a Czech appearance for the first time in the present war”, with houses decked out in Czech colours and young people wearing folk costume. A “proclamation of the Czechoslovak working people” was issued, heralding an autonomous republic.<sup data-fn="dae1e2b4-0353-42e7-9289-a0ba97dbbb8b" class="fn"><a href="#dae1e2b4-0353-42e7-9289-a0ba97dbbb8b" id="dae1e2b4-0353-42e7-9289-a0ba97dbbb8b-link">28</a></sup> “Forbidden to administrate” on 29 October,<sup data-fn="cc3cfae9-2e08-4378-90c4-0524ea0e1c63" class="fn"><a href="#cc3cfae9-2e08-4378-90c4-0524ea0e1c63" id="cc3cfae9-2e08-4378-90c4-0524ea0e1c63-link">29</a></sup> the prefect retired with the assurance he could claim his pension.<sup data-fn="4c305e91-ed38-4671-9583-a0fe1dc3a515" class="fn"><a href="#4c305e91-ed38-4671-9583-a0fe1dc3a515" id="4c305e91-ed38-4671-9583-a0fe1dc3a515-link">30</a></sup></p>



<p>Nonetheless, these measures proved insufficient in the face of the radical questioning of the administration by the ONVs, with the support of the Prague National Committee. In many districts, according to prefects&#8216; reports, the ONVs considered that in the name of &#8222;the Czech spirit&#8220;, it was up to them to secure all local authorities.<sup data-fn="66fdc3b9-5f73-42f4-8445-f6770a068f67" class="fn"><a href="#66fdc3b9-5f73-42f4-8445-f6770a068f67" id="66fdc3b9-5f73-42f4-8445-f6770a068f67-link">31</a></sup> They took over two strategic activities, the distribution of foodstuffs and the direction of the gendarmerie, and organized the surveillance of the &#8222;political administration&#8220;, posting guards at the doors of the district prefectures, or even inside the buildings. They wanted to seize the administrative archives, to receive the money for the food supplies, in short, to take the place of the administration. And worried telegraphs or telephone calls from the prefects mounted at the Bohemian government in Prague (i.e. the head of the political administration), demanding support for their own hierarchy and the end of that of the ministries for the ONVs. At Čáslav, the prefect reported with a touch of humour that the ONV had wanted to occupy his offices and isolate him in his private apartment:  </p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>I thanked these gentlemen for this suggestion [&#8230;] and refused [moreover] that they set up at the prefecture a liaison [&#8230;] who would only complicate the negotiations between the prefecture and the ONV [&#8230;]. Not to mention the secrecy of the matter: I would like to be able to handle them without fifteen people being aware.<sup data-fn="7c3d49a7-d2d7-4611-9ecc-984f288ae53f" class="fn"><a href="#7c3d49a7-d2d7-4611-9ecc-984f288ae53f" id="7c3d49a7-d2d7-4611-9ecc-984f288ae53f-link">32</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>What was at stake was to decide between the establishment of a fully nationalized administration under street control and the restoration of a &#8222;Weberian&#8220; administration, that is to say, a professional one only at the service of the common good, far from partisan (or national) conflicts.<sup data-fn="51518da0-7e73-4044-891f-2d0a220e5fa9" class="fn"><a href="#51518da0-7e73-4044-891f-2d0a220e5fa9" id="51518da0-7e73-4044-891f-2d0a220e5fa9-link">33</a></sup> To a large extent, Prague decided in favour of this solution, which had the advantage of not disrupting the country and relying on the ethos of the civil service, whose traditional mission was to ensure &#8222;order and calm&#8220;.<sup data-fn="e5836afb-49e7-4f85-8dfd-5f5b2920a893" class="fn"><a href="#e5836afb-49e7-4f85-8dfd-5f5b2920a893" id="e5836afb-49e7-4f85-8dfd-5f5b2920a893-link">34</a></sup> At the beginning of November, posters bloomed on the walls of the localities, showing the main points of circulars of the general government and the very first laws of the new state: the prefects – and they alone – were indeed responsible for the food supply and helped build &#8222;our dear homeland Czechoslovakia&#8220;.<sup data-fn="b47aa138-d67b-475c-926f-25c20eb3e3b6" class="fn"><a href="#b47aa138-d67b-475c-926f-25c20eb3e3b6" id="b47aa138-d67b-475c-926f-25c20eb3e3b6-link">35</a></sup> ONVs were banned on 4 December.<sup data-fn="4516636f-c370-4127-bcee-5d4bf637b18b" class="fn"><a href="#4516636f-c370-4127-bcee-5d4bf637b18b" id="4516636f-c370-4127-bcee-5d4bf637b18b-link">36</a></sup> </p>



<p>The new state was therefore in a position to be obeyed, deriving its legitimacy from its democratic nature. However unchanged, the administration, placed under the authority of the National Committee, was no longer that of the Empire, but the emanation of popular sovereignty – which further justified state control down to the local level. The Czechoslovak Republic, whose inhabitants were almost as linguistically diverse as those of the former Austria were, sought to bring together the two definitions of the term “people” as a whole, as an abstract civic community of citizens, <em>and</em> as a cultural community defined firstly by its main language and culture and therefore understood as an ethnic group. It offered the possibility for nationalisms to contribute to the construction of the new state. To put it in 1918 terms, &#8222;the affirmation of the sovereignty of the people” implied the recognition of &#8222;ideas that led the great cultured peoples, once politically reborn, to the flourishing of national forces&#8220;, after a world war that had helped ensure “the victory of the national principle&#8220;.<sup data-fn="6c27bf97-4fe4-4c4d-88dd-993daa58c406" class="fn"><a href="#6c27bf97-4fe4-4c4d-88dd-993daa58c406" id="6c27bf97-4fe4-4c4d-88dd-993daa58c406-link">37</a></sup> However, the inhabitants of the predominantly German-speaking territories seemed to refuse this offer <em>en bloc</em> between 1918 and 1919. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">“The Czechs caught on more quickly”. The German secession attempt on the local level</h2>



<p>Emperor Charles’ manifesto on 16 October 1918, which opened the door to the federalization of the Austrian part of the Empire,<sup data-fn="a8803843-16d6-44f0-87fd-2cd1fc262df1" class="fn"><a href="#a8803843-16d6-44f0-87fd-2cd1fc262df1" id="a8803843-16d6-44f0-87fd-2cd1fc262df1-link">38</a></sup> launched on a provincial level intense activity building German and Czech polities on the territory in which each nationality lived. For some German-speaking representatives of Bohemia-Moravia, it looked like recognition of the efforts they had made since their election to the Austrian Imperial Assembly (the Council of the Empire – <em>Reichsrat</em>) in 1907 or to the Bohemian Diet in 1908. They wanted to ensure clear separation between the Bohemian districts on the basis of main language. During the war, they also achieved a reinforcement of the administrative status of German-speaking towns in the north. Furthermore, Wilson’s Fourteen Points, published in January 1918, provided the international basis on which it seemed the peace would be settled. </p>



<p>This German-Bohemian activity was taken aback by the proclamation of a Czechoslovak Republic on 28 October. As a German politician later acknowledged, the Czechs were quicker.<sup data-fn="0beead6a-5c03-4e79-a100-75048d6512e3" class="fn"><a href="#0beead6a-5c03-4e79-a100-75048d6512e3" id="0beead6a-5c03-4e79-a100-75048d6512e3-link">39</a></sup> On 29 October, the German-speaking representatives of Bohemia-Moravia at the Imperial Council (which still existed) proclaimed from Vienna the attachment of their constituencies to &#8222;German-Austria&#8220; (<em>Deutschösterreich</em>, that is to say, what remained of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and corresponds to present-day Austria). The conservative politician Rudolf Lodgman von Auen headed this attempt at regional secession.<sup data-fn="c4866e9f-63fa-466b-ba7e-481b58720ce5" class="fn"><a href="#c4866e9f-63fa-466b-ba7e-481b58720ce5" id="c4866e9f-63fa-466b-ba7e-481b58720ce5-link">40</a></sup> Quite surprisingly, he enjoyed the support of the leader of the German-speaking Social Democrats in the Czech countries, Josef Seliger. The Social Democrats were well established in the political landscape, having won 87 of the 516 mandates in the Imperial Council elections of 1907. They hoped for a unification of the Bohemian constituencies with Germany, where the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert became chancellor on 9 November 1918.<sup data-fn="7fa0c899-19a6-4ff4-ade9-606377e03adc" class="fn"><a href="#7fa0c899-19a6-4ff4-ade9-606377e03adc" id="7fa0c899-19a6-4ff4-ade9-606377e03adc-link">41</a></sup></p>



<p>For the founders of the Czechoslovakian Republic, there was no question that any inch of the Bohemian territory would be given up. Between mid-November and mid-December 1918, the newly formed Czechoslovak army, armed by the Allies, pending the final decision on the definitive state borders to be made in the forthcoming peace negotiations, occupied the secessionist districts. In this connection, our East Bohemian sources recount a serious incident which seems to have been unique in its gravity and received a great deal of attention. Nine notables or local authorities of Choustníkovo Hradiště/Gradlitz, a German-speaking locality near Dvůr Králové/Köninginhof (where the majority was Czech-speaking), were arrested on 8 December 1918 by a detachment of the Czechoslovak army after the mayor had flaunted the German colours. In Dvůr Králové, the crowd almost lynched them on the way to the prison, from where they were brought to the court in Hradec Králové.<sup data-fn="fd635129-7d20-4941-bfd1-e2845d821e52" class="fn"><a href="#fd635129-7d20-4941-bfd1-e2845d821e52" id="fd635129-7d20-4941-bfd1-e2845d821e52-link">42</a></sup> German homes in Choustníkovo Hradiště/Gradlitz were searched, and arms and food were confiscated. That same week, the imperial insignia were removed from public buildings and in the nearby village of Žireč/Schurz the soldiers were &#8222;forced&#8220;<sup data-fn="186b5237-e70f-4343-8cc2-0529c2da312e" class="fn"><a href="#186b5237-e70f-4343-8cc2-0529c2da312e" id="186b5237-e70f-4343-8cc2-0529c2da312e-link">43</a></sup> to spit on a bust of the emperor thrown into the square.  </p>



<p>The mix-populated district of Dvůr Králové was then beset by the hostility of the urban labouring population to the countryside, which had drastically raised food prices since the beginning of blockade by the Allies in 1916.<sup data-fn="adef6f21-b61c-4cd8-b79c-b37d08dcc27c" class="fn"><a href="#adef6f21-b61c-4cd8-b79c-b37d08dcc27c" id="adef6f21-b61c-4cd8-b79c-b37d08dcc27c-link">44</a></sup> Czechs and Germans disagreed over the imperial plan to give Choustníkovo Hradiště/Gradlitz a court to reduce the influence of the nearby Czech-speaking court of Jičín. Finally, the 32 German-speaking municipalities (out of the 38 district municipalities) attempted to secede in November 1918. This accumulation of tensions can explain the degree of radicalization reached in these &#8222;revolutionary days&#8220; – revolutionary in the sense that those seen as grain hoarders were arrested, the old regime was broken with and its representatives (the mayor, two teachers and two gendarmes) were interned and mistreated by the crowd (all participating so that no one in particular could be held responsible), especially the <em>Gendarmeriewachtmeister</em> Scharf (the former direct representative of the abolished authority).<sup data-fn="cd5dedca-4066-4787-83e4-7ca5c0b9ae56" class="fn"><a href="#cd5dedca-4066-4787-83e4-7ca5c0b9ae56" id="cd5dedca-4066-4787-83e4-7ca5c0b9ae56-link">45</a></sup> The trouble ended with a mandatory declaration of loyalty to the new regime via the public desecration of a symbol of the old regime in the village of Žireč/Schurz. The lack of support shown by the authorities (on 21 December, the Hradec Králové court freed the nine men arrested in Choustníkovo Hradiště/Gradlitz) fits in with the above-mentioned strategy of appeasement. Furthermore, some days before the 8 December incident, &#8222;several mayors of German villages&#8220; around Dvůr Králové wrote to the prefect to &#8222;assure [him] that the situation will soon clear up” (they evidently did not believe in the success of secession) and that they intended to &#8222;remain in the district and continue to supply it&#8220;.<sup data-fn="8a30865f-9609-4fc2-8305-bb62ae79135b" class="fn"><a href="#8a30865f-9609-4fc2-8305-bb62ae79135b" id="8a30865f-9609-4fc2-8305-bb62ae79135b-link">46</a></sup></p>



<p>This divergence of opinions is representative of the lack of uniformity, even consistency on the regional level. For his part, the German Minister Plenipotentiary in Prague stressed the difference in attractiveness of the German provinces on the other side of the border. Only &#8222;Saxony attracts&#8220;; Bavaria (then one of the poorest regions in Germany) and Prussian Silesia aroused little interest, if not none at all.<sup data-fn="7debe6ad-18ef-4cc0-a0bf-898e22c5e85d" class="fn"><a href="#7debe6ad-18ef-4cc0-a0bf-898e22c5e85d" id="7debe6ad-18ef-4cc0-a0bf-898e22c5e85d-link">47</a></sup> The troops were sent to the east of Bohemia late and briefly, whereas they had been sent to its west as early as November 1918.<sup data-fn="14817421-f2df-43c8-9008-7e950242f37e" class="fn"><a href="#14817421-f2df-43c8-9008-7e950242f37e" id="14817421-f2df-43c8-9008-7e950242f37e-link">48</a></sup></p>



<p>In order to obtain an idea of public opinion in Trutnov/Trautenau, let us open the two periodicals of the time. They had been published for several decades. One, entitled <em>Neue Trautenauer Zeitung</em> from 1918 to 1919, had become nationalistic and anti-Semitic in the late 19<sup>th</sup> century. Its opposition to the young Republic was absolute and did not waver for several months. According to this publication, the whole of Eastern Bohemia was ready to secede and had only renounced by force of bayonets. The other, known as the <em>Ostböhmische Presse</em> during the period in question, remained faithful to the liberalism of its beginnings. The organ of the Trautenau linen exchange,<sup data-fn="9606b0db-da1a-4cce-b2db-0e5a4edbb8c2" class="fn"><a href="#9606b0db-da1a-4cce-b2db-0e5a4edbb8c2" id="9606b0db-da1a-4cce-b2db-0e5a4edbb8c2-link">49</a></sup> it tried harder than its competitor to provide its readers with an objective description of the world and the context of the moment. Following its front-page news between October and December 1918 shows a rapid evolution: from the preparation of the transformation of the Empire into a federation of states, we move to stupefaction on 28 October – &#8222;the world is collapsing&#8220; – and then to a succession of spotlights on the environment of the new Czechoslovakia, dominated by the fear of &#8222;Bolshevism&#8220;.  The conclusion is clear: only Czechoslovakia is a reasonable option. It should be added that the Trutnov/Trautenau linen weavers had a competitive relationship with the economically mightier province of Prussian Silesia and that the memory of the miseries of the 1866 war &#8222;with Prussia&#8220; might still have been present. </p>



<p>Nevertheless, <em>a</em> <em>priori</em>, the formation of a &#8222;German&#8220; state in Bohemia-Moravia fulfilled the wishes of a German-speaking population that had been increasingly on the defensive since the 1880s due to the rise of Czech nationalism, which it interpreted as a threat of extinction.<sup data-fn="5b9c9452-bc04-4e5f-a8bc-ae5b80277382" class="fn"><a href="#5b9c9452-bc04-4e5f-a8bc-ae5b80277382" id="5b9c9452-bc04-4e5f-a8bc-ae5b80277382-link">50</a></sup> So Dr von Sterneck, prefect of Trautenau, after learning from the newspapers on 31 October that he no longer answered to the imperial and royal Bohemian administration and was now part of an administration working with the Czech National committee,<sup data-fn="e578ae03-3943-44cb-84c4-b788b0a664c7" class="fn"><a href="#e578ae03-3943-44cb-84c4-b788b0a664c7" id="e578ae03-3943-44cb-84c4-b788b0a664c7-link">51</a></sup> shared his inner turmoil with his superiors. How would his German-speaking constituents understand that he refused to follow the Lodgman von Auen government in Liberec/Reichenberg, which stood in the continuity of the Empire and whose demands were based on Wilson&#8217;s Fourteen Points? At the same time, he certainly did not approve of the partitioning of the state.<sup data-fn="eaa6c2ac-e99f-4a90-9925-808d621e27a1" class="fn"><a href="#eaa6c2ac-e99f-4a90-9925-808d621e27a1" id="eaa6c2ac-e99f-4a90-9925-808d621e27a1-link">52</a></sup> Apart from a few German nationalists (including the mayor), he wrote, the majority of the population and industrialists considered the attachment of their district to German-Austria an impossibility; &#8222;the most reasonable believe that entry into Czechoslovakia is inevitable&#8220;.<sup data-fn="64915db0-f574-49a8-962a-f589215ee339" class="fn"><a href="#64915db0-f574-49a8-962a-f589215ee339" id="64915db0-f574-49a8-962a-f589215ee339-link">53</a></sup> The best solution, the prefect concluded, was that his substitute swear an oath to Reichenberg while he himself took a well-deserved holiday &#8222;after four years of overwork during the war&#8220;.<sup data-fn="17f5a5f7-f0be-47be-9715-e9e47c83f20b" class="fn"><a href="#17f5a5f7-f0be-47be-9715-e9e47c83f20b" id="17f5a5f7-f0be-47be-9715-e9e47c83f20b-link">54</a></sup> Karel Kramář, the head of the Czechoslovak Provisional Government, actually granted himself a holiday, as well as the prefect of Braunau (Broumov), the next German-speaking city, who had chosen the same avoidance tactics.<sup data-fn="a8a72f01-ff85-4cbf-9552-6bfc26ab26ad" class="fn"><a href="#a8a72f01-ff85-4cbf-9552-6bfc26ab26ad" id="a8a72f01-ff85-4cbf-9552-6bfc26ab26ad-link">55</a></sup> On his early return on 15 December due to the occupation of Trutnov/Trautenau by the Czechoslovak army, Dr von Sterneck had made his mind up. In Liberec/Reichenberg, secessionists retreated from a clash with the Czechoslovak army: they had failed to gather enough armed men,<sup data-fn="a7b149f2-f110-4949-a9ec-156b5bd25786" class="fn"><a href="#a7b149f2-f110-4949-a9ec-156b5bd25786" id="a7b149f2-f110-4949-a9ec-156b5bd25786-link">56</a></sup> or to secure the support of Germany.<sup data-fn="9b13a371-4cc7-4a38-8fc1-e71bf429ae9a" class="fn"><a href="#9b13a371-4cc7-4a38-8fc1-e71bf429ae9a" id="9b13a371-4cc7-4a38-8fc1-e71bf429ae9a-link">57</a></sup> An attempt to take control of the railway line between Trutnov and Liberec on 2 December had fizzled out. As for Sterneck himself, he wanted to continue to serve the state with loyalty, meaning the state as the guarantor of the laws and the public good.<sup data-fn="7f403d04-7923-48df-907b-a8866aa9d116" class="fn"><a href="#7f403d04-7923-48df-907b-a8866aa9d116" id="7f403d04-7923-48df-907b-a8866aa9d116-link">58</a></sup></p>



<p>As we see, by promoting the old organization of the territory and stability, the Republic took advantage of the divisions in German-speaking public opinion and could count on the tacit approval of a part of it. However, tensions lasted until the summer of 1919.<em> </em>Before the definitive frontiers of Czechoslovakia were recognized (in April 1919)<sup data-fn="e84e99f2-da7e-4731-924b-0aefb22be562" class="fn"><a href="#e84e99f2-da7e-4731-924b-0aefb22be562" id="e84e99f2-da7e-4731-924b-0aefb22be562-link">59</a></sup>, German-Austria publicly supported the attachment of the periphery of the Bohemian quadrilateral. Parts of the German-speaking population (or at least its spokespersons) took refuge in passive resistance, pending the final decision of the peace conference, showing the same confidence in Wilson and the Fourteen Points as the Czechs almost until the signature of the Treaty of Versailles.<sup data-fn="c4727914-e834-4564-8b2c-f41f3d08f944" class="fn"><a href="#c4727914-e834-4564-8b2c-f41f3d08f944" id="c4727914-e834-4564-8b2c-f41f3d08f944-link">60</a></sup> Thus, the government continued to encourage Czech speakers to make themselves more visible within the confines of the German-speaking regions. Beside other manifestations,<sup data-fn="59b35d2e-6ed2-4a5f-929c-0ba64ee71105" class="fn"><a href="#59b35d2e-6ed2-4a5f-929c-0ba64ee71105" id="59b35d2e-6ed2-4a5f-929c-0ba64ee71105-link">61</a></sup> the ONVs “of the Czech minority” in the mixed settlement territories were authorized by the National Council to remain in force after 4 December 1918,<sup data-fn="e8211f8a-94f9-4aba-a028-00db2ab4a1f6" class="fn"><a href="#e8211f8a-94f9-4aba-a028-00db2ab4a1f6" id="e8211f8a-94f9-4aba-a028-00db2ab4a1f6-link">62</a></sup> despite the tension their disordered initiatives fuelled.<sup data-fn="24858171-3293-400a-8a28-137e8c39614a" class="fn"><a href="#24858171-3293-400a-8a28-137e8c39614a" id="24858171-3293-400a-8a28-137e8c39614a-link">63</a></sup></p>



<p>The year 1919 began in a turbulent manner within the confines of the country. The “Bohemian-German government” still tried to maintain a shadow existence by issuing decrees and attempting to collect funds, through an appeal to the (German-speaking) population to take out loans, and it prepared clandestine elections for a German-Bohemian assembly. In the same month of January, the Trutnov/Trautenau town council was dissolved because, although it accepted members of the Czech minority, it rejected the principle of bilingualism.<sup data-fn="c59639cf-34e9-4fc8-923a-d87e70f79e19" class="fn"><a href="#c59639cf-34e9-4fc8-923a-d87e70f79e19" id="c59639cf-34e9-4fc8-923a-d87e70f79e19-link">64</a></sup> The prefect von Sterneck was removed to Karlovy Vary/Karlsbad.<sup data-fn="252c91a7-3d92-436b-8cca-5a25e5f774eb" class="fn"><a href="#252c91a7-3d92-436b-8cca-5a25e5f774eb" id="252c91a7-3d92-436b-8cca-5a25e5f774eb-link">65</a></sup></p>



<p>On 4 March 1919<em>,</em> the opening day of the Austrian Constituent Assembly, from which the Germans of Czechoslovakia were excluded, the German-speaking Social Democratic Party called for a general strike to protest the occupation by the Czechoslovak Army,<sup data-fn="fbeb4420-36f0-41ba-a45b-68ec25a5226b" class="fn"><a href="#fbeb4420-36f0-41ba-a45b-68ec25a5226b" id="fbeb4420-36f0-41ba-a45b-68ec25a5226b-link">66</a></sup> but also the end of convertibility with the Austrian currency. At that time, the already considerable weight of the left in Bohemia was reinforced by the serious social problems linked to the food shortage.<sup data-fn="fd02e2bb-02d9-4912-a378-e08416922ec6" class="fn"><a href="#fd02e2bb-02d9-4912-a378-e08416922ec6" id="fd02e2bb-02d9-4912-a378-e08416922ec6-link">67</a></sup> The call to demonstrate was taken up by the masses throughout the new Republic on 4 March (and in some cases already on the 3<sup>rd</sup>) the subject of mass emulation throughout the new Republic. The demonstrations were put down by the army, with fifty-two deaths in the Czech lands.<sup data-fn="7e2ec8ed-a7d1-4fd8-8b3e-c0e8034704be" class="fn"><a href="#7e2ec8ed-a7d1-4fd8-8b3e-c0e8034704be" id="7e2ec8ed-a7d1-4fd8-8b3e-c0e8034704be-link">68</a></sup> In Hostinné/Arnau (5 km south of Trutnov/Trautenau), where soldiers opened fire with machine guns, two women watching the demonstration as mere spectators were killed, whereupon the demonstrators flew into a rage and, turning on the soldiers, forced them to flee.<sup data-fn="91c1b73a-2083-4f77-8d08-cdde51c3817a" class="fn"><a href="#91c1b73a-2083-4f77-8d08-cdde51c3817a" id="91c1b73a-2083-4f77-8d08-cdde51c3817a-link">69</a></sup></p>



<p>The same day, sixty kilometres away in Broumov/Braunau, a crowd of about ten thousand people threw the court&#8217;s archives out of a window. When authorities sent soldiers, they happened to be from the same battalion as the rioters, some of them being from Braunau and the others from Náchod: a few months before, they had been fighting alongside each other at the front. Negotiations took place and the day ended without serious incident.<sup data-fn="bef65414-c9e5-4888-bc7c-7d9db2e47420" class="fn"><a href="#bef65414-c9e5-4888-bc7c-7d9db2e47420" id="bef65414-c9e5-4888-bc7c-7d9db2e47420-link">70</a></sup> The border nevertheless remained an area of tension, with crossings to and from Germany being closely monitored. For instance, in Vrchlabí/Hohenelbe in the late March, two Germans were killed “for no good reason” by the Czech gendarmerie.<sup data-fn="46112116-cb1f-4841-8fa9-059f38a59b4b" class="fn"><a href="#46112116-cb1f-4841-8fa9-059f38a59b4b" id="46112116-cb1f-4841-8fa9-059f38a59b4b-link">71</a></sup></p>



<p>These flashpoints notwithstanding, the situation was slowly easing. The already existing workers&#8216; parties in the border region feared competition with the Spartacists (later to become the Communists) and they made every effort to curb their influence.<sup data-fn="7dbb7403-1b91-4edb-9566-bfb92b33c04b" class="fn"><a href="#7dbb7403-1b91-4edb-9566-bfb92b33c04b" id="7dbb7403-1b91-4edb-9566-bfb92b33c04b-link">72</a></sup> For instance, the German-speaking Social Democratic Party was said to be “double-dealing&#8220;,<sup data-fn="a103587d-a7e5-42e6-86f2-a38c0c703ef2" class="fn"><a href="#a103587d-a7e5-42e6-86f2-a38c0c703ef2" id="a103587d-a7e5-42e6-86f2-a38c0c703ef2-link">73</a></sup> apparently supporting German secession, but deep down favouring joining Czechoslovakia. In March 1919, a new high-ranking officer was named to take command of the troops stationed in Trautenau, most of whom were returning from operations in Slovakia.<sup data-fn="7f91880c-de60-43a4-a3ac-66aad7795929" class="fn"><a href="#7f91880c-de60-43a4-a3ac-66aad7795929" id="7f91880c-de60-43a4-a3ac-66aad7795929-link">74</a></sup> Colonel von Macha was well received, being “a former General Staff officer, most recently in Salzburg”.<sup data-fn="b19fa0a4-8617-4a7b-9617-bf7f61736449" class="fn"><a href="#b19fa0a4-8617-4a7b-9617-bf7f61736449" id="b19fa0a4-8617-4a7b-9617-bf7f61736449-link">75</a></sup> Indeed, there were repeated peaks of tension, particularly in the June, during the conclusion of the Versailles negotiations and the municipal election campaign. Attacks on facilities of local Czech minorities (schools for example) took place. However, the municipal elections of June 1919, held for the first time on the basis of universal suffrage, seem to have marked a decisive turning point towards appeasement.  </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">After the elections of June 1919: starting a new dance  </h2>



<p>Although characterized by multiple social and political disorders, at the same time the year 1919 was marked by a general tendency to reduce conflict outside the framework of institutions. The new rules of operation began to be known and accepted by a population, albeit with multiple expectations. In meeting them, Czech-speaking municipalities seem to have enjoyed an advantage over the German-speaking ones.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dr. Tauer, the official who, since the February, had been the commissioner of the Republic in charge of controlling the municipality of Trutnov/Trautenau, welcomed the newly elected officials in the July in these terms:&nbsp;</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>Ladies and Gentlemen!&nbsp;</p>
</blockquote>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>[&#8230;] We all have in mind the recent events before the war, those of the war and those that accompanied the change of regime [<em>Umsturz</em>]. [&#8230;] In the Czechoslovakian state, that is to say in our Republic, liberal and democratic laws have been passed which make it possible for it to occupy one of the leading places in Europe in terms of social reforms. [&#8230;] This, however, requires our patience, our tenacity; not the passive patience that was once demanded, but the patience that comes from the intimate conviction that all progress, according to the eternal law of nature and history, can only be achieved through work, slow development, and efforts to improve [&#8230;.]&nbsp;</p>
</blockquote>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow">
<p>The Germans have lost the war and we see to what conditions Germany and German Austria are subjected [&#8230;]. Here the Germans are on an equal footing with the Czechs and are with them on the side of the victorious Entente [&#8230;]. Soon we will see Germans and Czechs living here happily again, side by side and with each other; how they will begin to dance together again, to love each other, to marry, to send their children to each other on language exchanges, etc.<sup data-fn="cf4efcc1-c615-4e0b-a8fb-790924bfa378" class="fn"><a href="#cf4efcc1-c615-4e0b-a8fb-790924bfa378" id="cf4efcc1-c615-4e0b-a8fb-790924bfa378-link">76</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>



<p>This conciliatory presentation of the situation ends with a long-term and depoliticized view of everyday life. In the present, it was still strained by every possible shortage the municipality was struggling to overcome. But without connection to the new state authorities, which would control the economy like in wartime until 1921, it was an almost desperate enterprise. The situation was quite different in the neighbouring town of Náchod.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Before the Great War, strong political tendencies in this small, thriving Czech-speaking town between Trutnov and Hradec Králové saw on the one side anarchist young workers and on the other &#8222;Young Czechs&#8220;, whose nationalist and democratic electorate was composed of both workers and members of the growing middle class.<sup data-fn="4ad25a10-794c-409e-8f88-b8ecb38102c2" class="fn"><a href="#4ad25a10-794c-409e-8f88-b8ecb38102c2" id="4ad25a10-794c-409e-8f88-b8ecb38102c2-link">77</a></sup> Since 1900, these Young Czechs had dominated the town hall. In 1908, the constituents<em> </em>sent Young Czech deputy Jaroslav Preiss to the Bohemian parliament. In 1918, the municipality brought in the anarchists they knew already. The latter accepted a power share in order to avoid the appearance of the Communist Party in the city. Having declared themselves for the Czech National Democratic Party, founded in March 1919, the mayor Josef Čížek and the councillors maintained the best relations with Karel Kramář, the leader of the party and prime minister from November 1918 to July 1919. In addition, Kramář had recently acquired (in 1916) a spinning mill not far away in the Giant Mountains. He entered the world of Czech textile manufacturers, who generously financed the Czech National Democratic Party under the Republic – figures such as the Bartoň family, who owned and ran Náchod&#8217;s largest factory.<sup data-fn="63897ee9-4af3-4346-9fb6-eb5f645ac151" class="fn"><a href="#63897ee9-4af3-4346-9fb6-eb5f645ac151" id="63897ee9-4af3-4346-9fb6-eb5f645ac151-link">78</a></sup> During the First Republic, the former deputy Jaroslav Preiss devoted himself to economic activities, initially as the manager of the most important Czech bank, the <em>Živnostenská banka</em>, from 1917 to 1938. In 1918, he also became the vice-president of the Central Union of the Czech Industrials (<em>Ústřední svaz českých průmyslníků</em>).<sup data-fn="46ed53aa-95e1-4f8f-9683-e44b88113740" class="fn"><a href="#46ed53aa-95e1-4f8f-9683-e44b88113740" id="46ed53aa-95e1-4f8f-9683-e44b88113740-link">79</a></sup></p>



<p>Here we can observe close relations between business and politics which were forged not at the end of the war, but before it. Between 1900 and 1912, the gradual opening of suffrage to male voters led to a reshaping of political forces, while the booming Czech industry allowed the promotion of new elites.<sup data-fn="84d0a855-e74f-4157-99be-e9e8dd307c2e" class="fn"><a href="#84d0a855-e74f-4157-99be-e9e8dd307c2e" id="84d0a855-e74f-4157-99be-e9e8dd307c2e-link">80</a></sup> The compromise between political and economic actors established a strong link between Prague and Náchod, intensively connecting the peripheral textile town to the new political and economic centre after 1918.  </p>



<p>Conversely, for the elites in Trutnov/Trautenau, it was a question of finding a place for themselves in the new Republic while retaining power at the local level, now that the census suffrage (or householder franchise) in force for municipal elections under the Empire had been abolished.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The elites themselves opened the city council to selected Social Democrats in late 1918 to make headway “under the black, red and gold banner [of German unity in 1848]&#8220;, and to Czechs in January 1919, “all speak[ing] German”.<sup data-fn="12f3d7e7-0042-44e6-bfe4-889c30056b4a" class="fn"><a href="#12f3d7e7-0042-44e6-bfe4-889c30056b4a" id="12f3d7e7-0042-44e6-bfe4-889c30056b4a-link">81</a></sup> The elections of mid-June 1919 merely confirmed the arrival of delegates from the Czech minority and a numerous Social Democrat group. The municipality thus accepted the normal game of Czechoslovak institutions and entry into the new state,<sup data-fn="7c20f6e4-71ef-4444-8d75-93da485e4fcf" class="fn"><a href="#7c20f6e4-71ef-4444-8d75-93da485e4fcf" id="7c20f6e4-71ef-4444-8d75-93da485e4fcf-link">82</a></sup> even when clashes demonstrated that links with Prague were difficult to establish.<sup data-fn="c3030b74-51dc-48dd-99af-218512bc94fa" class="fn"><a href="#c3030b74-51dc-48dd-99af-218512bc94fa" id="c3030b74-51dc-48dd-99af-218512bc94fa-link">83</a></sup> In fact, the mayor, the former deputy Hironymus Siegel, remained a German nationalist, like many of his German-speaking colleagues from Bohemia and Moravia who, during the interwar period, belonged to Lodgman von Auen’s German National Party (DAP).<sup data-fn="8116175d-9acc-40cf-ba5a-22a00f3f416e" class="fn"><a href="#8116175d-9acc-40cf-ba5a-22a00f3f416e" id="8116175d-9acc-40cf-ba5a-22a00f3f416e-link">84</a></sup> This party granted relative independence to its members. It was personalities that carried the elections more than a program, as before the introduction of universal suffrage in municipal elections. Barely represented on the national level, the party existed only as an emblem of Germanness in Czechoslovakia. </p>



<p>This did not preclude other social groups from making greater integration efforts, provided that the new state met their expectations. During 1919, the chronology of the politico-social demands of the German-speaking districts of Eastern Bohemia was in line with that of the Czech districts. The reports of the prefect of Náchod, for example, show a rise in tensions from mid-January 1919 to September due to unemployment. The lack of raw materials aggravated food shortages: starving workers found no work in idle textile factories.<sup data-fn="618874a0-51da-4c5c-b329-f9fb34774cd5" class="fn"><a href="#618874a0-51da-4c5c-b329-f9fb34774cd5" id="618874a0-51da-4c5c-b329-f9fb34774cd5-link">85</a></sup> The decoupling of the Czechoslovak <em>koruna</em> from the Austrian currency in February, though the latter was in a vertiginous fall, was poorly received everywhere. Grain distribution bureaus were subject to strong criticism that sometimes spilled over into physical aggression. Thus, the fall in the prices of staple foods had become one of the mainstays of social democracy.<sup data-fn="9b3c925c-68bd-44d7-8ccb-50ba4754283b" class="fn"><a href="#9b3c925c-68bd-44d7-8ccb-50ba4754283b" id="9b3c925c-68bd-44d7-8ccb-50ba4754283b-link">86</a></sup> If employed, the workers demanded a wage increase of at least 50 per cent to cover the high cost of living.<sup data-fn="452cc387-4786-4fac-95f5-a773006398a8" class="fn"><a href="#452cc387-4786-4fac-95f5-a773006398a8" id="452cc387-4786-4fac-95f5-a773006398a8-link">87</a></sup> </p>



<p>In the mid-May, the demonstrations took on the appearance of insurrection in Náchod. The district had 4,500 unemployed, barely 500 of whom could benefit from the public interest works funded by the local authorities. &#8222;Appeals against state bodies and employers&#8220; were heard.<sup data-fn="204ac0fd-b148-4108-a6a8-b49fecf5d7ab" class="fn"><a href="#204ac0fd-b148-4108-a6a8-b49fecf5d7ab" id="204ac0fd-b148-4108-a6a8-b49fecf5d7ab-link">88</a></sup> Beside intervention with the Ministry of Commerce to accelerate the arrival of cotton wagons, an inter-ministerial meeting was then convened in Prague to discuss specific social measures: roadworks and train shipments of American rye.<sup data-fn="e6852cbc-8069-4fc6-8304-f935af8069d2" class="fn"><a href="#e6852cbc-8069-4fc6-8304-f935af8069d2" id="e6852cbc-8069-4fc6-8304-f935af8069d2-link">89</a></sup> Shortly thereafter, these measures were extended to the other municipalities in Eastern Bohemia, without privileging the Czech ones. They were part of a political consensus at the end of war to make Czechoslovakia a “social Republic” with some of the highest social spending in Europe. </p>



<p>Post-war difficulties were indeed the same for everyone in Czechoslovakia. In the archives consulted, the only experience formulated jointly by members of different social groups concerned the war disabled and support for dead soldiers’ families. In the conservative Hradec Králové, for example, the freethinking newspaper <em>Kraj Královéhradecký </em>could call on the Catholic ladies of the Red Cross to collaborate with the nondenominational Republic on their behalf;<sup data-fn="3f28daa8-c168-45e0-ad22-f8a6fa4dfaee" class="fn"><a href="#3f28daa8-c168-45e0-ad22-f8a6fa4dfaee" id="3f28daa8-c168-45e0-ad22-f8a6fa4dfaee-link">90</a></sup> in the same way, of all the Trutnov/Trautenau associations founded or re-founded in the immediate post-war period, only the Red Cross was supranational.<sup data-fn="cf88245f-d50c-442e-b51c-46632456fcbc" class="fn"><a href="#cf88245f-d50c-442e-b51c-46632456fcbc" id="cf88245f-d50c-442e-b51c-46632456fcbc-link">91</a></sup> The German-speaking war-disabled protested (they and the &#8222;very numerous” women who accompanied them)<sup data-fn="9b964667-2751-4b41-86b7-359488182e79" class="fn"><a href="#9b964667-2751-4b41-86b7-359488182e79" id="9b964667-2751-4b41-86b7-359488182e79-link">92</a></sup> with the same intensity as in the Czech districts. They used the same classical forms of parliamentary democracy that were already well established in Bohemia, especially the petition solemnly transmitted to the prefecture in the company of local politicians and sent to the competent ministry, in this case the Ministry of Social Care, in Prague.<sup data-fn="585ac20d-ddb2-4f8b-803e-43b132ec5ce0" class="fn"><a href="#585ac20d-ddb2-4f8b-803e-43b132ec5ce0" id="585ac20d-ddb2-4f8b-803e-43b132ec5ce0-link">93</a></sup> Old habits of a “nationalized” society in which each linguistic group organized itself without collaboration with the other one<sup data-fn="6a16f41b-a650-4c65-9446-4c5d622e9103" class="fn"><a href="#6a16f41b-a650-4c65-9446-4c5d622e9103" id="6a16f41b-a650-4c65-9446-4c5d622e9103-link">94</a></sup> soon took over again. The German-speaking war disabled tried to open their own emergency funds &#8222;for fear of being reduced to the smallest portion” in a common fund because they were not Czech. As this was not possible, they openly placed conditions on their loyalty to the state: the state had to guarantee them social benefits in the due proportions.<sup data-fn="9edb97ad-594d-4cf9-bc47-1540bf322660" class="fn"><a href="#9edb97ad-594d-4cf9-bc47-1540bf322660" id="9edb97ad-594d-4cf9-bc47-1540bf322660-link">95</a></sup></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



<p>The transition in Bohemia to a republic that would avoid a Bolshevik-type revolution was based, on the local level, on a strong continuity of state administration and on the military occupation of the borders. In a society organized in a quasi-communitarian way in two groups divided according to the Czech and German languages, the ex-Austrian administration in Prague succeeded in convincing the Czech speakers of its national spirit and the German speakers that they would receive fair treatment. Using its knowledge of sub-state contexts, it worked to establish the Republic by taking advantage of the diversity of local opinions and interests. The integration was noticeably quicker when the local elites were well connected to the centre. In Náchod, these ties were strengthened around the provincial elections of 1908. After the war, local elites and national politicians came closer again, gathering around Karel Kramář and Jaroslav Preiss, who were now in key positions in the young Republic, while the municipality managed to integrate workers’ representatives, including anarchists, in the name of the Czech nation.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The situation in the German-speaking districts was more difficult, as there was very little scope for interaction between German and Czech speakers. The representatives of the German-speaking districts had to build networks with Prague. In the sources consulted, the mediation of high-ranking officials and officers appears to have been indispensable. Despite some reassignments, most of the officials remained in their posts. Reports of the state representatives working in Trutnov/Trautenau show that the citizens felt understood when they had to deal with people who spoke the same language as them and who could act as a bridge between them and the central authorities. It was also a matter of learning the new rules of the game. The social benefits related to the human losses of the war seem to have been at the centre of this learning process.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Finally, our examination of local sources shows that the Republic was accepted earlier than suggested by studies based on the central archives, which focus on the parliamentary elections of 1920. By the end of November 1918, some of the actors appearing in the documents consulted seemed to have made up their minds, and as soon as the municipal elections of June 1919 were over, the majority of political actors began to work on the &#8222;social contract&#8220; to be concluded with the new state.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Translation from French into English by Michelle McNamara, PhD edited John Heath.</em> </p>



<p><strong>Ségolène Plyer<em> </em></strong>received her PhD from the University Paris I in 2007 on expellees’ integration into Germany after 1945 and has been a lecturer in contemporary history at the University of Strasbourg since 2010. She is currently conducting research on textile businesses in northeastern Bohemia between 1870 and 1930 in order to analyse how this remote region, whose population was Czech and German, participated in globalisation. Besides Austrian and Czech social history, she is also interested in topics comparing Alsace with other borders of the German-speaking world. </p>


<ol class="wp-block-footnotes"><li id="6d9f18c2-aade-411e-831b-a80a03540f87">Senior researcher, ERC project NEPOSTRANS The project leading to this application has received funding from the <em>European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme </em>under grant agreement no. 772264. <br>I would also like to thank Dr. Jan Kahuda (Národní archiv) and Dr. Martin Klečacký (Masaryk Institute at the Czech Academy of Sciences), who gave useful advice. Kind thanks are also due to the district archives of Trutnov (Luděk Jirásek) and Náchod (Dr. Jaroslav Čáp) for their help, and to the Trutnov museum staff.  <a href="#6d9f18c2-aade-411e-831b-a80a03540f87-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 1 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c956db5d-7966-4557-985d-1343eee5a975">For an introduction, see Georgios Giannakopoulos: An Age of Ages. Nation, Empires and their Discontents, In: Contemporary European History 29 (2020) 2, pp. 232–242. <a href="#c956db5d-7966-4557-985d-1343eee5a975-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 2 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3e4e7797-0619-4204-8630-7b5144eb1773">See Antonín Klimek: Velké dějiny zemí Koruny české [The big history of Czech crown lands]. Vol. XIII, Prague, Litomyšl, Paseka 2000, p. 9; Ines Koeltzsch, Ota Konrád: From ‘Islands of Democracy’ to ‘Transnational Border Spaces’: State of the Art and Perspectives of the Historiography on the First Czechoslovak Republic since 1989. In: Bohemia 56 (2016) 2, pp. 285–327; Zdeněk Kárník: České země v éře První republiky. Vznik, budování a zlatá léta republiky (1918-1929) [The First Republic in the Czech Lands. Birth, Development and Heyday]. Prague 2017 [2000]; Volume 3 of <em>Český Časopis Historický</em> [Czech Historical Journal] (2018), especially Jiří Pešek: Vznik, charakter a konec první Československé republiky (Několik úvah k aktuálním diskusím) [Birth, Character and End of the First Czechoslovak Republic (Some Reflections on Current Debates)], pp. 659–692; Lukáš Fasora, Miroslava Květová, Richard Lein, Ondřej Matějka (eds.): Demokratická monarchie, nedemokratická republika? Kontinuity a zlomy mezi monarchií a republikou ve střední Evropě. Prague, Masarykův ústav a Archiv AV ČR, “Publikace Stálé konference českých a rakouských historiků”, 2020. Because this article was originally written for the summer of 2018, it only marginally takes into account publications that occurred afterwards.  <a href="#3e4e7797-0619-4204-8630-7b5144eb1773-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 3 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e1f88182-bc7b-4a4d-af43-35983c6d84d3">Peter Haslinger: Nation und Territorium im tschechischen politischen Diskurs 1880–1938. Munich 2010, especially pp. 197–207. <a href="#e1f88182-bc7b-4a4d-af43-35983c6d84d3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 4 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="95c8a37b-1ba4-445c-98ab-4ff60f462678">For example, Etienne Boisserie: Asserting Czechoslovak Authority in Slovakia. Context and Obstacles in the Immediate Aftermath of the Great War, In: Christoph Cornelissen, Marco Mondini (eds.): The Mediatization of War and Peace. The Role of Media in Political Communication, Narratives and Public Memory (1914–1939). Berlin, Boston 2021, pp. 109–124; Bohumila Ferenčuhová: Qu’a signifié la naissance de la Tchécoslovaquie pour les Slovaques ? Historiens et opinion publique, In: Antoine Marès (ed.), Mémoires et usages de 1918 dans l’Europe médiane (Memories and Customs of 1918 in Central Europe), Paris 2020, pp. 195–212.  <a href="#95c8a37b-1ba4-445c-98ab-4ff60f462678-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 5 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="86b53c7f-6470-4208-9595-6b6f6a22e282">Deset let pány ve svém domově [Ten Years Masters in Their Own Home]. In: Litoměřické listy [LitoměřiceNnewspaper], 20.10.1928, no. 21, front page.  <a href="#86b53c7f-6470-4208-9595-6b6f6a22e282-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 6 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b0e9f92b-b667-4ea2-a04c-47ee33ceba14">Karel Řeháček: Němci proti Československu na západě Čech (1918–1920) [Germans against Czechoslovakia in Western Bohemia]. Plzeň 2008.  <a href="#b0e9f92b-b667-4ea2-a04c-47ee33ceba14-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 7 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0acb48ec-305b-4506-9eab-0b4c909b9fee">Especially České místodržitelství (Bohemian general government), prezidium (presidium), 1911–1920 (henceforth ČM PM), series “Převrat” [coup d’Etat, revolution]. The prefects’ letters and reports quoted below are all addressed to the presidium. <a href="#0acb48ec-305b-4506-9eab-0b4c909b9fee-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 8 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="da08f38f-185e-4602-a02a-aefe64c67736">Jiří Hnilica: Dynamiques du 28 Octobre tchécoslovaque aux XX<sup>e</sup> et XXI<sup>e</sup> siècles, In: A. Marès: Mémoires et usages, pp. 161–74, here: p. 166. <a href="#da08f38f-185e-4602-a02a-aefe64c67736-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 9 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="55e748db-1b22-4b2a-b15d-6f5ae9738a46">Cf. Paul Hare and Gerard Turley (eds.): Handbook of the Economics and Political Economy of Transition. Abingdon, New York 2013. <a href="#55e748db-1b22-4b2a-b15d-6f5ae9738a46-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 10 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="2903413f-3084-4864-9440-714754b3217f">See Philippe Bezes (ed.) : Réformes de l’Etat et transformations démocratiques. Le poids des héritages, In: Critique internationale 35 (2007). <a href="#2903413f-3084-4864-9440-714754b3217f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 11 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="976c4509-95ca-423c-9b90-21c17d38513e">See for example Olivier Bouquet: Old Elites in a New Republic. The Reconversion of Ottoman Bureaucratic Families in Turkey (1909–1939), In : Comparative Studies in South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 31 (2011) no. 3, pp. 588–560. <a href="#976c4509-95ca-423c-9b90-21c17d38513e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 12 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0622112c-5261-4caf-b93f-07626e69c58f">Luboš Velek: Češi ve víru světové války (1914–1918) [Czechs in the Whirlwind of the World War (1914–1918)], In:<em> </em>Dagmar Hájková, Pavel Horák (eds.): Republika československá 1918–1939 [The Czechoslovak Republic 1918–1939], Prague 2018, pp. 48–71, here: pp. 67–71. Martin Klečacký: Převzetí moci. Státní správa v počátcích Československé republiky 1918–1920 na příkladu Čech [The Rise to Power. State Administration at the Beginning of the Czechoslovakian Republic. The Bohemian Example, 1918–1920], In: Český Časopis Historický 3 (2018), 697–732, here: pp. 695, pp. 698–699.  <a href="#0622112c-5261-4caf-b93f-07626e69c58f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 13 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fe40eacc-67c5-42ff-a783-2f9fa814a6fc">ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, archive box (henceforth b.) 4548, Administrator (name illegible), prefectory of Ledeč, 7.11.1918: “Nový duch úřadování [New spirit of administration]”. The author remarked benignly that “Všecky tyto zjevy nikterak nepřekvapují a jsou pouhým výsledkem chaosu prvých dnů, vždyt´radostný převrat tak náhle a neočekávaně všechny vrstvy národa překvapil”<em> </em>[nothing of this is surprising in any way, as it is only the result of the chaos of the early days, when the revolution that happened so fortunately surprised all the parts of the nation]. All translations by the author.  <a href="#fe40eacc-67c5-42ff-a783-2f9fa814a6fc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 14 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="16568d8e-76e9-482b-b3e0-2027b5af8aa0">For Ota Konrád, the level of violence in Bohemia matched those in Austria, even if it declined quite soon after the end of the war (Two Post-War Paths. Popular Violence in the Bohemian Lands and in Austria in the Aftermath of World War I, In: Nationalities Paper, 46 (2018) 5, pp. 759–775). <a href="#16568d8e-76e9-482b-b3e0-2027b5af8aa0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 15 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="aafcfb70-5907-4f74-90da-6a8185ff61a9">A hostility nevertheless existed in Bohemia and Moravia, especially on the part of Catholics: see for example the protests against the destruction of the Prague Virgin Mary column on 3 November 1918 recorded in the file “Stížnosti a udání na nepřístojné chování duchovních 1918 [Complaints against improper behaviour of clergymen]”, State District Archiv Hradec Králové (henceforth SOKA HK), series <em>Okresní národní výbor Hradec Králové I.</em> [District National Committee Hradec Králové I]. On Catholicism and its political situation at the beginning of the Republic, see Jaroslav Šebek: Za Boha, národ, pořádek [For God, Nation, and Order]. Prague 2016, pp. 47–67.  <a href="#aafcfb70-5907-4f74-90da-6a8185ff61a9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 16 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="45e8b811-be98-4be7-ace8-13c49f53d2ce">ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, b. 4548, circular signed by Jan Kosina “Nové úkoly [New tasks]” “to be handed to the directories of each prefectory and to the chief of the Prague police”, 30.10.1918 (henceforth Circular “Nové úkoly”, 30.10.1918). The entire quotation reads: “Zachováním rovnováhy ve správním organismu, jakož i zabezpečením klidu a pořádku za všech okolností splnili onu část nových úkolů, která vložena jest na jejich bedra.” <a href="#45e8b811-be98-4be7-ace8-13c49f53d2ce-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 17 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="dcd567ef-0d8a-4264-9340-312b56d6e5d7">Klimek: Velké dějiny, p. 18. <a href="#dcd567ef-0d8a-4264-9340-312b56d6e5d7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 18 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="50594fc2-a193-4e3d-9f66-113bf298c904">See Michal Frankl, Miloslav Szabó: Budování státu bez antisemitismu? Násilí, diskurz loajality a vznik Československa [Building a State without Anti-Semitism? Violence, the Discourse of Loyalty and the Creation of Czechoslovakia]. Prague 2015, pp. 34–98, especially pp. 35–38. <a href="#50594fc2-a193-4e3d-9f66-113bf298c904-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 19 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7e78d496-52d5-4856-b771-7b5069207ee7">Paragraph 2 of the law instituting the independent state of Czechoslovakia, 28.10.1918: “all imperial laws remain in force for the time being”. <a href="#7e78d496-52d5-4856-b771-7b5069207ee7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 20 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="78ff8575-dd54-47c6-b408-2b51c7dd105e">See M. Klečacký: Převzetí moci, and ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, b. 4548: circular of 30.10.1918 to the leaders of the political administration and the chief of the Prague police signed by the newly self-appointed governor Kosima: “Die Organisation und der Wirkungskreis [der politischen Behörden – handwritten addition] bleiben sowohl in territorialer als auch in sachlicher Hinsicht unverändert.” <a href="#78ff8575-dd54-47c6-b408-2b51c7dd105e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 21 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="11ebbf89-e81b-4c6a-acf6-eadea2aaaf58">All quotations from the same circular of 30.10.1918, “Die Organisation… bleib[t] unverändert, p. 1: Das, was der grossen Umwälzung ihr Gepräge gibt, ist – abgesehen von dem erfolgreichen Durchdringen des nationalen Gedankens – in erster Linie der Sieg der demokratischen Grundsätze [emphasis in the original] [n]ach vier Kriegsjahren, während welcher sich der alte Staat immer mehr und mehr von dem Willen und den Wünschen des Volkes entfernte […].” John Deak and Jonathan Gumz have insisted on this dimension of an empire at war with its own population: How to Break a State: The Habsburg Monarchy’s Internal War, 1914–1918, In: The American Historical Review 122 (2017) 4, pp. 1105–1136.  <a href="#11ebbf89-e81b-4c6a-acf6-eadea2aaaf58-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 22 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4f830104-fe09-435b-b41a-ea22cbcb26c6">Circular “Nové úkoly”, 30.10.1918. <a href="#4f830104-fe09-435b-b41a-ea22cbcb26c6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 23 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="538344bd-1cd6-45b1-becc-04406579a149">After Richard Česaný, prefect of Chrudim (ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, b. 4548, letter of the 6.11.1918). See also Martin Klečacký: Český ministr ve Vídni: ve službách císaře, národa a politické strany [A Czech Minister in Vienna: Working for the Emperor, the Czech People and a Political Party], Prague 2017. <a href="#538344bd-1cd6-45b1-becc-04406579a149-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 24 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8a7ed502-9e0e-4144-a857-76c3ee6032af">Martin Klečacký: Poslušný vládce okresu. Okresní hejtman a proměny státní moci v Čechách v letech 1868-1938 [Obedient Masters of the Districts. Bohemian Prefects in Changing Times, 1868–1938]. Prague, Masarykův ústav a Archiv AV ČR, 2021, p. 213. See also the political administration biographies before and (despite the book’s title) after 1918 in: M. Klečacký et al., Slovník představitelů politické správy v Čechách v letech 1849–1918 [Heads of the Bohemian Political Administration, 1849–1918. A Biographical Dictionary], Prague 2020.  <a href="#8a7ed502-9e0e-4144-a857-76c3ee6032af-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 25 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6f0f896d-a781-4092-9cc9-4717044684b2">“Der ‘Národní okresní výbor’ hat mich soeben für abgesetzt erklärt, weil ich mich im Interesse des österreichischen Staates und Patriotismus zu viel exponiert haben und deshalb der öffentlichen Ruhe und Ordnung gefährlich sei. Die Amtsführung würde meinem Stellvertreter, Oberkommissär Pacovský, übergehen.” ČM PM, 1–6–22–10, b. 4516, transcript of prefect Smutný’s phone call to the presidium, 29.10.1918. <a href="#6f0f896d-a781-4092-9cc9-4717044684b2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 26 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="413e50cb-3cae-44c6-a57f-1474f6c8f893">State District Archive Hradec Králové, City Archive Hradec Králové, inventory no. 531, Pamětní kniha [Chronicle] 1918-1921, book no. 232 (henceforth Chronicle HK), pp. 101, p. 117, p. 118, p. 120. <a href="#413e50cb-3cae-44c6-a57f-1474f6c8f893-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 27 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="dae1e2b4-0353-42e7-9289-a0ba97dbbb8b">Chronicle HK, pp. 122–123. <a href="#dae1e2b4-0353-42e7-9289-a0ba97dbbb8b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 28 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cc3cfae9-2e08-4378-90c4-0524ea0e1c63">Chronicle HK, p. 125. <a href="#cc3cfae9-2e08-4378-90c4-0524ea0e1c63-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 29 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4c305e91-ed38-4671-9583-a0fe1dc3a515">As M. Klečacký shows in Poslušný vládce okresu, pp. 213–215, the dismissal of senior officials was undertaken in a consensual manner.  <a href="#4c305e91-ed38-4671-9583-a0fe1dc3a515-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 30 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="66fdc3b9-5f73-42f4-8445-f6770a068f67">ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, b. 4548, Administrator (name unreadable), prefectory of Ledeč, 7.11.1918. <a href="#66fdc3b9-5f73-42f4-8445-f6770a068f67-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 31 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7c3d49a7-d2d7-4611-9ecc-984f288ae53f">ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, b. 4548, letter of the prefect Karel Vojáček, Čáslav, 25.11.1918. <a href="#7c3d49a7-d2d7-4611-9ecc-984f288ae53f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 32 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="51518da0-7e73-4044-891f-2d0a220e5fa9">Ph. Bezes: Construire des bureaucraties wébériennes à l’ère du New Public Management ? [Building a Weberian bureaucracy in the era of New Public Management?]. In: Critique internationale [International Review] 35 (2007), pp. 9–31, here: p. 9, pp. 11–12, p. 22. <a href="#51518da0-7e73-4044-891f-2d0a220e5fa9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 33 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e5836afb-49e7-4f85-8dfd-5f5b2920a893">Circular “Nové úkoly”, 30.10.1918. <a href="#e5836afb-49e7-4f85-8dfd-5f5b2920a893-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 34 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b47aa138-d67b-475c-926f-25c20eb3e3b6">ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, b. 4548, posters of prefect Šprongl in Příbram (1.11.1918) and Mann in Ledeč (4.11.1918). <a href="#b47aa138-d67b-475c-926f-25c20eb3e3b6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 35 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4516636f-c370-4127-bcee-5d4bf637b18b">“Unanimous decision of the Council of ministers, 4 December 1918”, forwarded by the presidency of the Home Ministry to the Bohemian government, 6.12.1918.<em> </em>ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, b. 4548. <a href="#4516636f-c370-4127-bcee-5d4bf637b18b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 36 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6c27bf97-4fe4-4c4d-88dd-993daa58c406">“Und so bekennen sich die neuen Gebilde, die auf den Trümmern der alten Ordnung entstehen, freudig zu jenen Ideen, welche den großen Kulturvölkern seit ihrer politischen Wiedergeburt eine segensreiche Entfaltung der nationalen Kräfte gebracht haben, welche heute der leidenden Menschheit den langersehnten Frieden wiederbringen – zu den Ideen, die in der Erkenntnis gipfeln, dass das Volk [sic] dessen natürliche Fähigkeiten, Begabung und Fleiß die einzige Machtquelle des Staates bilden.“ ČM PM, 1-6-28-68, b. 4548, circular of 5.11.1918.  <a href="#6c27bf97-4fe4-4c4d-88dd-993daa58c406-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 37 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a8803843-16d6-44f0-87fd-2cd1fc262df1">See Christopher Brennan: ‘Eure Majestät fragen mich etwas spät’ (à propos de Charles Ier). In: <em>Austriaca</em>, 87 (2018), pp. 77–102.  <a href="#a8803843-16d6-44f0-87fd-2cd1fc262df1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 38 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0beead6a-5c03-4e79-a100-75048d6512e3">State Regional Archive Litoměřice – henceforth SOAL – series Lodgman von Auen, b. 4, inventory no. 152: letter (copy) of deputy Josef Mayer, Eger/Cheb, to R. Lodgman von Auen, 7.01.1924. “Lieber Freund! Mit Entsetzen verfolge ich in der letzten Zeit die Verschiedenen [sic] Aufsätze, in denen sich die Führer der Umsturzzeit gegenseitig die Schuld am gänzlichen Versagen unseres Volkes in den kritischen Herbsttagen 1918 vorwerfen. […] [M]eine alte Auffassung [habe ich bestätigt], dass die Tschechen ursprünglich genau so von den Ereignissen überrascht wurden, wie wir, daß sie aber als der geschontere Teil sich rascher erfangen konnten und dann den Augenblick besser ausnützen […].”  <a href="#0beead6a-5c03-4e79-a100-75048d6512e3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 39 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c4866e9f-63fa-466b-ba7e-481b58720ce5">See Susannne Maurer-Horn: Die Landesregierung für Deutschböhmen und das Selbstbestimmungsrecht 1918/1919. In: Bohemia 38 (1997), 37–55; Hanns Haas: Im Widerstreit der Selbstbestimmungsansprüche: vom Habsburgerstaat zur Tschechoslowakei die Deutschen der böhmischen Länder 1918 bis 1919. In: Hans Mommsen, Dusan Kovác, Jirí Malír (eds.): Der Erste Weltkrieg und die Beziehungen zwischen Tschechen, Slowaken und Deutschen. Essen 2001, pp. 141–220; Francesco Leoncini: La questione dei Sudeti 1918–1938 [The Sudete Question 1918-1938]. Venezia 2005; Johann Wolfgang Brügel: Tschechen und Deutsche. Vol. I: 1918–1939. Munich 1967, pp. 524–525.  <a href="#c4866e9f-63fa-466b-ba7e-481b58720ce5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 40 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7fa0c899-19a6-4ff4-ade9-606377e03adc">Jean-Numa Ducange: Quel(s) droit(s) pour quel(s) peuple(s) ? Les dilemmes du socialisme autrichien. 1918-1918 [Which Right(s) for which People(s) ? The Dilemmas of Austrian Socialism. 19181918]. In: Revue d’Allemagne [German Review], 52 (2020) 2, pp. 289–302. <a href="#7fa0c899-19a6-4ff4-ade9-606377e03adc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 41 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fd635129-7d20-4941-bfd1-e2845d821e52">Offenes Schreiben an den Herrn Präsidenten der tschechoslowakischen Republik Dr. Thomas Masaryk zur Besetzung der deutschen Gemeinden des Königinhofer Bezirkes, In: Neue Trautenauer Zeitung (henceforth NTZ), 18.1.1919, front page. See also Radomír Roup: Jakschův kámen [The Jaksch Stone], In: Vlastivědné čtení o Královědvorsku [Historical Reading about the Královědvor Region], 3 (2018), pp. 26–28, here: p. 27, quoting the Schönauer Anzeiger of 29.12.1918. Unfortunately, it was impossible to compare the version printed by the newspapers with the court records, as the court in Hradec Králové referred the case to the one in Dvůr Králové, whose records are only partly accessible to research.  <a href="#fd635129-7d20-4941-bfd1-e2845d821e52-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 42 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="186b5237-e70f-4343-8cc2-0529c2da312e"><em>NTZ</em>, ibid. <a href="#186b5237-e70f-4343-8cc2-0529c2da312e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 43 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="adef6f21-b61c-4cd8-b79c-b37d08dcc27c">According to prefect Veselý of Dvůr Králové in his report of 26.8.1915: “[ich] muss jedoch zugleich bemerken, dass die dem Landwirtestande angehörende Bevölkerung ohne Unterschied der Nationalität den wünschenswerten Sinn für das Gemeinwohl nur insolange bekundet hat, als von Seite des Militaerärars Prämien und von Seite der Konsumenten […] fabelhaft[e] Preise (bis 60.– K. pro q. Korn) bezahlt wurde[n].“ ČM PM, 1-6-19-14, b. 4512. <a href="#adef6f21-b61c-4cd8-b79c-b37d08dcc27c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 44 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cd5dedca-4066-4787-83e4-7ca5c0b9ae56">Cf. also villagers’ refusals to obey hunting laws in the name of liberty in January 1919, quoted by Ota Konrád in: Widersprüchlich und unvollendet. Die Demokratie der Ersten Tschechoslowakischen Republik 1918 bis 1938, In: Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte 66 (2018) 2, pp. 337–349, here: p. 345.  <a href="#cd5dedca-4066-4787-83e4-7ca5c0b9ae56-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 45 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8a30865f-9609-4fc2-8305-bb62ae79135b">„Různí starostové německé mne však ujišťovali, že situace se v nejbližší době vyjasní a naznačili, že se od okresu neodloučí a dodávati budou.“<em> </em>ČM PM, 1–6–22–10, b. 4516, report by the prefect Josef Ruth, Dvůr Králové, 30.11.1918. <a href="#8a30865f-9609-4fc2-8305-bb62ae79135b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 46 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7debe6ad-18ef-4cc0-a0bf-898e22c5e85d"> „Für uns Preußen ist es nicht gerade schmeichelhaft, dass die Lust zu einer Vereinigung mit Schlesien im östlichen Böhmen weit schwächer ist, als diejenige zu einer Vereinigung mit Sachsen und Bayern in den westlicheren Gebieten. Am stärksten ist die Hinneigung zu Sachsen […] nur die bayerischen Grenzbezirke sind für Bayern.“ Wedel (German embassy in Vienna) to Chancellor Max von Baden: Die Stimmung der Deutschböhmen (14.10.1918). In: Manfred Alexander (ed.): Deutsche Gesandtschaftsberichte aus Prag. Innenpolitik und Minderheitenprobleme in der Ersten Tschechoslowakischen Republik. Vol. I: Von der Staatsgründung bis zum ersten Kabinett Beneš, 1918–1921. Munich 2003, p. 543.  <a href="#7debe6ad-18ef-4cc0-a0bf-898e22c5e85d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 47 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="14817421-f2df-43c8-9008-7e950242f37e">Prague had the railways in Stříbro and Mariánské Lázně/Marienbad occupied as early as 11 November. The army retired soon but came back after physical assaults against local authorities on 21 November. K. Řeháček: Němci, p. 177. <a href="#14817421-f2df-43c8-9008-7e950242f37e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 48 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9606b0db-da1a-4cce-b2db-0e5a4edbb8c2">Trautenau was then the capital of the Austrian linen industry. See our article on the subject: L&#8217;internationalisation des industriels liniers en Bohême du XIX<sup>e</sup> siècle à la Première Guerre mondiale. Deux documents inédits, In: Source(s). Art, civilisation et histoire de l’Europe. Vol. 17 (2021), pp. 141–190 [online] DOI: 10.57086/sources.122. <a href="#9606b0db-da1a-4cce-b2db-0e5a4edbb8c2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 49 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="5b9c9452-bc04-4e5f-a8bc-ae5b80277382">See Petr Mücke, Renáta Růžičková, Jiří Vaněček. Orlíčky dolů! Východní Čechy v dokumentech z období vzniku republiky. Zámrsk 2018, pp. 53–63 for documents issued by the secessionists in North-eastern Bohemia. <a href="#5b9c9452-bc04-4e5f-a8bc-ae5b80277382-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 50 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e578ae03-3943-44cb-84c4-b788b0a664c7">ČM PM 1–6–22–10, b. 4516, letter from Dr Jakob Daublesky von Sterneck, prefect of Trutnov/Trautenau, 31.10.1918 at 11 pm, pp. 1–2. The letter is referring to the “decree Z 34849, also printed in <em>Prager Tagblatt</em>”, p. 1. <a href="#e578ae03-3943-44cb-84c4-b788b0a664c7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 51 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="eaa6c2ac-e99f-4a90-9925-808d621e27a1">ČM PM 1-6-22-10, b. 4516, von Sterneck’s letter of 1.11.1918. <a href="#eaa6c2ac-e99f-4a90-9925-808d621e27a1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 52 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="64915db0-f574-49a8-962a-f589215ee339">“Die allgemeine Stimmung im Bezirke ist etwa folgende: Die Besonnenen halten ein Zusammengehen mit den Čechen für unerlässlich, die wirklich einsichtsvollen sogar ein Aufgehen im Čechischen Staat für das Richtige. Dem stehen aber, zunächst die Stadtvertretung gegenüber, die unbedingt einem Anschlusse an die deutschböhmische Provinz das Wort redet […] aber auch eine Vielheit der Bewohner […] weniger aus Überzeugung, als aus Furcht, etwa als ‘Nicht deutsch’ gesinnt gebrandmarkt zu werden.“ ČM PM 1-6-22-10, b. 4516, Von Sterneck, 31.10.1918, p. 3.  <a href="#64915db0-f574-49a8-962a-f589215ee339-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 53 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="17f5a5f7-f0be-47be-9715-e9e47c83f20b"> Ibid. <a href="#17f5a5f7-f0be-47be-9715-e9e47c83f20b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 54 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a8a72f01-ff85-4cbf-9552-6bfc26ab26ad"> ČM PM 1–6–22–10, b. 4516; letter of the Braunau/Broumov prefect, Dr Jaroslav von Kořistka, 2.12.1918. Incidentally, von Kořistka was von Sternek’s son-in-law.  <a href="#a8a72f01-ff85-4cbf-9552-6bfc26ab26ad-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 55 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a7b149f2-f110-4949-a9ec-156b5bd25786">The German-speaking soldiers showed very little motivation to fight for secession. Hence at the beginning of November in Aussig (Ústí nad Labem), the city authority had to call the Czech military to the rescue in order to avoid looting. The German soldiers went home or even took part in the plundering: “Wir [in Aussig] müssen mit großem Bedauern und mit Beschämung feststellen, dass wir in dieser Lage tschechische Sicherheitstruppen, die uns vom Leitmeritzer Militärkommando angeboten wurden […] anzunehmen [gezwungen waren] aus dem Grunde, weil unsere deutschen Soldaten […] in alle Winde auseinander gestoben sind [und die Urlauber sich] an den Plünderungen in erster Reihe beteiligten.“ SOAL, series Lodgman, b. 3, no. 78, Dr Osthof’s report, 2.11.1918. See also the diplomatic report “Verhandlungen mit den Tschechen. Die Zukunft Deutschböhmens” of 13.11.1918: Von Gebsattel to Chancellor Ebert on the occupation of the airport in Eger (Cheb) by “400 Czech soldiers” without any opposition from Bohemian German regiments (Alexander: Gesandtschaftsberichte, pp. 81, 107).  <a href="#a7b149f2-f110-4949-a9ec-156b5bd25786-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 56 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9b13a371-4cc7-4a38-8fc1-e71bf429ae9a">Alexander: Gesandtschaftsberichte, report of 27.11.1918, pp. 575–578. <a href="#9b13a371-4cc7-4a38-8fc1-e71bf429ae9a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 57 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7f403d04-7923-48df-907b-a8866aa9d116">ČM PM 1-6-22-10, b. 4516, von Sterneck, 22.12.1918. <a href="#7f403d04-7923-48df-907b-a8866aa9d116-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 58 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e84e99f2-da7e-4731-924b-0aefb22be562">Haslinger: Nation und Territorium, pp. 257–258.  <a href="#e84e99f2-da7e-4731-924b-0aefb22be562-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 59 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c4727914-e834-4564-8b2c-f41f3d08f944">For instance, a circular of the (German) municipal committee called on all villages of the Eger district to make use of their right to self-determination by insisting on being attached to Austria on the basis of Wilson&#8217;s Fourteen Points (6.1.1919) (“das vom Präsidenten Wilson feierlich verkündete Selbstbestimmungsrecht über die Staatszugehörigkeit in Anspruch nehmen”, ČM PM, 1–6–22–10, b. 4516). See also the speeches of Wilhelm Kiesewetter, a Trutnov/Trautenau councillor and popular social democratic journalist, for example on 26 January 1919 before an audience of 700 (ČM PM, 8-5-22-2, b. 5340, report of the Trutnov prefecture) or even “thousands” on 1 May 1919 (<em>NTZ</em>, 3.5.1919, p. 2).  <a href="#c4727914-e834-4564-8b2c-f41f3d08f944-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 60 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="59b35d2e-6ed2-4a5f-929c-0ba64ee71105">See for example the Czech burial described by the private chronicler Oskar Nimsch: &#8222;The late Anton Melicharek, a merchant who in his lifetime had not been supported very much by the Czechs either [this probably refers to the Czech minority in Trautenau], was buried with great pomp and circumstance, with the army and the Sokol&#8220;. “Dem verstorb. tsch. [sic] Kaufmann Melicharek Anton, der auch von den Tschechen nicht sonderlich unterstützt wurde, wurde von den Tschechen ein großes Begräbnis bereitet, an der Spitze des Leichenzuges marschierten Militär u. Sokoln.“<em> </em>State District Archive Trutnov, series “Pozůstalost Oskara Nimsche”, b. 2: “Kronika Trutnova 1910–1934” (henceforth Nimsch´s Chronicle), p. 1715, entry of 31.3.1919.  <a href="#59b35d2e-6ed2-4a5f-929c-0ba64ee71105-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 61 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e8211f8a-94f9-4aba-a028-00db2ab4a1f6">Handwritten note on the “Unanimous decision of the Council of Ministers, 4 December 1918”. <a href="#e8211f8a-94f9-4aba-a028-00db2ab4a1f6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 62 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="24858171-3293-400a-8a28-137e8c39614a">For instance, in Trutnov/Trautenau on 15 December 1918, prefect von Sterneck had to accept a “celebration of the Czech national resurrection” (“slavnost českého Národního vzkříšení<em>”</em>) by members of the Czech minority, although they had not applied for due authorization. A call from the general government in Prague forbade him to oppose in any way “demonstrations of Czech spirit” (ČM PM, 1-6-22-10, b. 4516, letter 22.12.1918 and handwritten note with Prague’s order). <a href="#24858171-3293-400a-8a28-137e8c39614a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 63 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c59639cf-34e9-4fc8-923a-d87e70f79e19">Auflösung der Trautenauer Stadtverwaltung, In:<em> </em>NTZ 1.02.1919, front page. <a href="#c59639cf-34e9-4fc8-923a-d87e70f79e19-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 64 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="252c91a7-3d92-436b-8cca-5a25e5f774eb">The Bohemian political administration (former Bohemian general government) proposed to the Home Ministry as his successor Dr. Šorf, underlining that he was “an ethnic Czech” (“jenž je národnosti české”), 24.02.1919. ČM PM, 1–6–29–8. Ultimately, Dr. Jan Tauer served as prefect in Trutnov between 1919 and 1922. <a href="#252c91a7-3d92-436b-8cca-5a25e5f774eb-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 65 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fbeb4420-36f0-41ba-a45b-68ec25a5226b">See for example the Memorandum of the Bohemian-German government, Vienna, 11.04.1919. SOAL, Series Lodgman, b. 3, no.100. <a href="#fbeb4420-36f0-41ba-a45b-68ec25a5226b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 66 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fd02e2bb-02d9-4912-a378-e08416922ec6">“Übereinstimmende Berichte aus Deutschböhmen […] melden, dass sich in nordböhmischen Industriebezirken Hungerkatastrophe vorbereite […]. [Es] ist in vielen Gegenden Deutschböhmens z.B. in Karlsbad seit einem Monat nicht nur kein Fleisch und kein Fett[,] sondern nicht einmal Brot zu erhalten.” SOAL, Series Lodgman, b. 4, n°116, “Telegramy do Bernu”, telegram signed Lauermann of 2.4.1919. Although well informed about the economic situation, Logdman von Auen paid little attention to social issues (Minister Saenger to the German Foreign Office, Prague 4.11.1919, In: Alexander: Gesandtschaftsberichte, p. 217).  <a href="#fd02e2bb-02d9-4912-a378-e08416922ec6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 67 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7e2ec8ed-a7d1-4fd8-8b3e-c0e8034704be">See Karl Braun: Der 4. März 1919. Zur Herausbildung sudetendeutscher Identität, In: <em>Bohemia</em> 37 (1996), pp. 353–380; SOAL, Series Lodgman, b. 4, no.106: Zusammenfassender Bericht über die letzten Ereignisse in Böhmen […], Bern, April 1919, p. 2. In Cheb (Eger), Karlovy Vary and Stříbro, the army shot at the protesters (with whom the local police sided) and killed ten (K. Řeháček: Němci, p. 179).  <a href="#7e2ec8ed-a7d1-4fd8-8b3e-c0e8034704be-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 68 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="91c1b73a-2083-4f77-8d08-cdde51c3817a"><em>NTZ</em>, 8.03.1919, pp. 1–2, “Deutschböhmen trauert!” <a href="#91c1b73a-2083-4f77-8d08-cdde51c3817a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 69 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="bef65414-c9e5-4888-bc7c-7d9db2e47420">Account of Josef Pohl, who fought in the Second Chasseurs until the fall of 1918. Records of Heimatkreis Braunau/Sudetenland (Association of Former Inhabitants of Braunau in Bohemia), Forchheim, Bavaria, b.10/5/3, no date (1960s?) <a href="#bef65414-c9e5-4888-bc7c-7d9db2e47420-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 70 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="46112116-cb1f-4841-8fa9-059f38a59b4b">Nimsch’s Chronicle p. 1715, entry of 29.3.1919: “Hohenelbe 29. März […]. Auf der Hohenelber Straße u. bei Rennerbauden wurde je ein deutscher Mann ohne triftigen Grund von tsch. Gendarmerie angeschossen, tödlich verletzt.”<em> </em>(“On Hohenelbe Street and near the Renner inn, one German man was shot [in each location] [and] mortally wounded without good reason by [the] Cz. Gendarmerie”). <a href="#46112116-cb1f-4841-8fa9-059f38a59b4b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 71 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7dbb7403-1b91-4edb-9566-bfb92b33c04b"> For instance, in the western part of Bohemia, Spartacists from the Bavarian towns of Selb and Klingenthal dominated the German secessionist movement of Cheb/Eger, Aš/Asch and Karlovy Vary/Karlsbad (Řeháček: Němci, pp. 181–182). On the animosity of the Social Democrats towards Communists on the northeastern border, see for example Franz Krejci: Das Aupatal im Riesengebirge und seine Textilarbeiter um die Jahrhundertwende. Aarau 1961, pp. 180–182. <a href="#7dbb7403-1b91-4edb-9566-bfb92b33c04b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 72 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a103587d-a7e5-42e6-86f2-a38c0c703ef2">ČM PM 1-6-22-10, b. 4516, von Sterneck, 31.10.1918. See also Alexander: Gesandtschaftsberichte p. 161, entry of 7.05.1919,<em> </em>on the closeness of the Czech and German Social Democrats. <a href="#a103587d-a7e5-42e6-86f2-a38c0c703ef2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 73 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7f91880c-de60-43a4-a3ac-66aad7795929">Ota Holub: Obsazení Trutnovska československou armádou a její poslání v letech 1918–1921 [The Occupation of Trutnov by the Czechoslovak Army and its Mission in 1918-1921], In: Krkonoše–Podkrkonoší 2 (1966), pp. 25–39. <a href="#7f91880c-de60-43a4-a3ac-66aad7795929-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 74 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b19fa0a4-8617-4a7b-9617-bf7f61736449">Nimsch´s Chronicle, entry of 31.3.1919, p. 1715. <a href="#b19fa0a4-8617-4a7b-9617-bf7f61736449-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 75 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cf4efcc1-c615-4e0b-a8fb-790924bfa378">Dr. Tauer, speech on the first meeting of the city council of Trutnov/Trautenau, 7.07.1919, published in German in Amtsblatt der Bezirkshauptmanschaft und des Bezirksschulrates in Trautenau, no.8 (1.8.1919), p. 1.  <a href="#cf4efcc1-c615-4e0b-a8fb-790924bfa378-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 76 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4ad25a10-794c-409e-8f88-b8ecb38102c2">Lydia Baštecká, Jaroslav Čáp, Jan Čížek: Vývoj městské samosprávy v Náchodě<em> </em>[Development of the Autonomous City Administration of Náchod]. Náchod 2007, p. 28. <a href="#4ad25a10-794c-409e-8f88-b8ecb38102c2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 77 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="63897ee9-4af3-4346-9fb6-eb5f645ac151">Zdeněk Sládek: Češti textilní průmyslníci a československá národní demokracie [Czech Textile Entrepreneurs and Czechoslovakian National Democracy] In: Z dějin textilu. Studie a materiály 11 [From the History of Textiles. Studies and Materials] (1987), pp. 183–1919, here: pp. 183,188. <a href="#63897ee9-4af3-4346-9fb6-eb5f645ac151-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 78 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="46ed53aa-95e1-4f8f-9683-e44b88113740">For a biography of Preiss, see Alain Soubigou: Banques et banquiers dans la Tchécoslovaquie de Masaryk.<strong> </strong>Le cas de Jaroslav Preiss [Banks and bankers in Masaryk’s Czechoslovakia. The case of Jaroslav Preiss], In:<em> </em>Catherine Horel (ed.): Nations, cultures et sociétés d’Europe centrale aux XIX<sup>e</sup> et XX<sup>e</sup> siècles. Mélanges offerts à Bernard Michel [Nations, Cultures and Societies of Central Europe in the XIXth and XXth Centuries. Combinations Offered to Bernard Michel], Paris 2006, pp. 251–264. <a href="#46ed53aa-95e1-4f8f-9683-e44b88113740-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 79 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="84d0a855-e74f-4157-99be-e9e8dd307c2e">For the same period, Martin Klečacký has highlighted the close ties between Czech politicians and the Bohemian–Moravian high administration, which continued unchanged after 1918. See M. Klečacký, Převzetí moci, p. 696 about Jan Kosima, and Český ministr ve Vídni. <a href="#84d0a855-e74f-4157-99be-e9e8dd307c2e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 80 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="12f3d7e7-0042-44e6-bfe4-889c30056b4a">Erste Sitzung des Gemeinderats, In: NTZ 18.1.1919, p. 4; NTZ, 18.01.1919, p. 4. Although divergences quickly emerged between &#8222;nationalists&#8220; and the socialists, on 1 May 1919, the Social Democrats marched with the slogan “Proletarians of all countries unite”, while the National Socialists (markedly less numerous) followed the black, red and gold flag. Nevertheless, the two processions met up in the city square in the name of German unity (Erster Mai. In:<em> </em>NTZ 3.5.1919, p. 2).  <a href="#12f3d7e7-0042-44e6-bfe4-889c30056b4a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 81 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7c20f6e4-71ef-4444-8d75-93da485e4fcf">For instance, Councillor Mainr held a vote that passed “unanimously without debate” on the financing of Czech courses in the Trutnov/Trautenau schools at the city’s expense (the state took it over after 1919). Aus der Trautenauer Stadtvertretung. In: NTZ, 9.8.1919, p. 3. <a href="#7c20f6e4-71ef-4444-8d75-93da485e4fcf-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 82 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c3030b74-51dc-48dd-99af-218512bc94fa">In August 1919, the mayor and three councillors were rebuffed when they attempted to address Minister Klofáč in Prague (concerning the town’s difficulties supplying the local garrison) because they did not speak Czech. (Der Trautenauer Bürgermeister muss Tschechisch können. In: NTZ<em> </em>16. 8.1919, p.6, quoting the newspaper Bohemia<em> </em>of 14.8.1919).  <a href="#c3030b74-51dc-48dd-99af-218512bc94fa-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 83 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8116175d-9acc-40cf-ba5a-22a00f3f416e">Rudolf Jaworski: Vorposten oder Minderheit? Der sudetendeutsche Volkstumskampf in den Beziehungen zwischen der Weimarer Republik und der CSR. Stuttgart 1977, p. 69. <a href="#8116175d-9acc-40cf-ba5a-22a00f3f416e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 84 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="618874a0-51da-4c5c-b329-f9fb34774cd5">On 30.4.1919, the prefect of Nová Paka reported that no textile factory was working in the district due to a lack of raw materials (ČM PM, 8–1–55–11, 1919). <a href="#618874a0-51da-4c5c-b329-f9fb34774cd5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 85 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9b3c925c-68bd-44d7-8ccb-50ba4754283b">In the spring of 1920 for example, the city hall of Hradec Králové authorized 46 members of the Social Democratic party to enquire “tactfully” about the prices in the city’s shops (ČM PM, 1–6–19–11, report of the prefecture to the Home Ministry in response to Senator Josef Thoř’s claim, 23–24.6.1920). <a href="#9b3c925c-68bd-44d7-8ccb-50ba4754283b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 86 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="452cc387-4786-4fac-95f5-a773006398a8"><em>Informační zprávy politických úřadů</em> [Weekly Prefectural Reports], State District Archive of Náchod, presidentiální spisy 1918–1939, b. 19, J 80, 1919; ČM PM, 8–5–22–2, b. 5340, military police report on the strike in the Úpa/Aupa Valley, 29.2.1919; front page of <em>Vorwärts </em>(Social Democratic newspaper of Liberec/Reichenberg) of 27.5.1919 on the successful textile workers’ general strike in Northern Bohemia. See also the series <em>Dělnické hnutí 1919, 1920</em> (<em>Workers’ Movement</em> 1919, 1920)<em> </em>published by the Bohemian political administration in Prague (ČM PM, 8–1–55–11).  <a href="#452cc387-4786-4fac-95f5-a773006398a8-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 87 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="204ac0fd-b148-4108-a6a8-b49fecf5d7ab"> ČM PM, 8–1–55–11, report of the Náchod prefecture to the Ministry of Social Care, 17.5.1919. <a href="#204ac0fd-b148-4108-a6a8-b49fecf5d7ab-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 88 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e6852cbc-8069-4fc6-8304-f935af8069d2"> Ibid., final report of the inter-ministerial meeting of 20.5.1919 (copy). <a href="#e6852cbc-8069-4fc6-8304-f935af8069d2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 89 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3f28daa8-c168-45e0-ad22-f8a6fa4dfaee">“Občanstvu okresu královéhradeckého!” [To the Citizens of the Hradec Králové District!] Appeal to the population signed Jan Černý, head of the Hradec Králové ONV, In: Kraj Královéhradecký 2.11.1918, p. 1. <a href="#3f28daa8-c168-45e0-ad22-f8a6fa4dfaee-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 90 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cf88245f-d50c-442e-b51c-46632456fcbc">State District Archive Trutnov, Okresní úřad 1910–1936, Spolky a politické strany [Associations and political parties], 18–22–1. <a href="#cf88245f-d50c-442e-b51c-46632456fcbc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 91 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9b964667-2751-4b41-86b7-359488182e79">NTZ 6.12.1919, p. 2. <a href="#9b964667-2751-4b41-86b7-359488182e79-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 92 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="585ac20d-ddb2-4f8b-803e-43b132ec5ce0">Here: ČM PM, 8–5–22–2, b. 5340, report about a demonstration with around 500 participants on 22.02.1919 in Trutnov. <a href="#585ac20d-ddb2-4f8b-803e-43b132ec5ce0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 93 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6a16f41b-a650-4c65-9446-4c5d622e9103">See Kristina Kaiserová, Jiří Rak (eds.): Nacionalizace společnosti v Čechách 1848–1914 [The Nationalization of Bohemian Society, 1848–1914]. Ústí nad Labem 2008. <a href="#6a16f41b-a650-4c65-9446-4c5d622e9103-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 94 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9edb97ad-594d-4cf9-bc47-1540bf322660">An attitude justified by Eckert, Trutnov leader of the war-disabled, at the demonstration of 30 November 1919: “If we are citizens of this state, we have to defend our rights”; “all nations are to cooperate to build this state” (NTZ 6.12.1919, p. 2). Natali Stegmann observed the same attitude in 1923 in Cheb, where some speakers said, at the meeting of 18.11.1923 “Unser Vaterland ist dort, wo man für uns sorgt.” Cited in: Deutsche Kriegsgeschädigte in der Tschechoslowakei 1918–39, In: Bohemia<em> </em>48 (2008) 2, pp. 440–463, here: p. 446.  <a href="#9edb97ad-594d-4cf9-bc47-1540bf322660-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 95 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li></ol><p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/bohemias-eastern-border-in-transition-1918-1919/">Bohemia’s Eastern Border in Transition, 1918–1919 </a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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		<title>Fiume’s Political Elites and Their Challengers, 1918–1924</title>
		<link>https://halbjahresschrift.de/fiumes-political-elites-and-their-challengers-1918-1924/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[IKGS-Admin_2]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Thu, 29 Feb 2024 16:31:46 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[Ausgabe 2023]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Wissenschaft]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://halbjahresschrift.de/?p=818</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[<p>Ivan Jeličić, Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences, University Rijeka&#160; This article was written partially under the auspices of the project NEPOSTRANS, “Negotiating post-imperial transitions: from remobilization to nation-state consolidation. A comparative study of local and regional transitions in post-Habsburg East and Central Europe,” financed by the European Research Council (ERC) Consolidator Grant agreement no. [&#8230;]</p>
<p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/fiumes-political-elites-and-their-challengers-1918-1924/">Fiume’s Political Elites and Their Challengers, 1918–1924</a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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<p>Ivan Jeličić, Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences, University Rijeka&nbsp;</p>



<p>This article was written partially under the auspices of the project NEPOSTRANS, “Negotiating post-imperial transitions: from remobilization to nation-state consolidation. A comparative study of local and regional transitions in post-Habsburg East and Central Europe,” financed by the European Research Council (ERC) Consolidator Grant agreement no. 772264. I would like to thank the NEPOSTRANS team members, in particular Gábor Egry and Cody J. Inglis, as well as Dominique&nbsp;Kirchner&nbsp;Reill, for their constructive remarks on previous versions of the manuscript.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Fiume’s Political Elites and Their Challengers, 1918–1924</h2>



<p>The city of Fiume, now Rijeka in Croatia,<sup data-fn="90ea26b6-c725-4a92-81e4-d142c9b1ccd5" class="fn"><a href="#90ea26b6-c725-4a92-81e4-d142c9b1ccd5" id="90ea26b6-c725-4a92-81e4-d142c9b1ccd5-link">1</a></sup> faced one of the most complex geopolitical puzzles at the end of the First World War. Immediately after the breakup of the Habsburg Empire in October–November 1918, rival national councils struggled to incorporate the industrial port city into the two nation-states to its west (the Kingdom of Italy) and to its east (the newly forming State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs (SCS); from 1 December 1918, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes). From September 1919 on, Gabriele D’Annunzio and his followers occupied Fiume to force its annexation by Italy. When smooth annexation failed, additional political trajectories opened, including the proclamation of an unrecognized independent state in 1920.<sup data-fn="ea526ee6-fc16-41eb-8683-8c4398ab504c" class="fn"><a href="#ea526ee6-fc16-41eb-8683-8c4398ab504c" id="ea526ee6-fc16-41eb-8683-8c4398ab504c-link">2</a></sup> Most importantly, after Italian–Yugoslav territorial negotiations, the city briefly existed as independent state (1921–24), falling to a fascist coup d’état in March 1922 which preceded formal annexation to Italy. The transition from the (Austro-)Hungarian context to the Italian nation-state was anything but straightforward. From October 1918 to January 1924, institutions involved in administering or trying to administer the city on different levels were multiple and competitive, while political options were heterogeneous to say the least.<sup data-fn="12c59c67-b277-458d-b436-a59cc8a9f580" class="fn"><a href="#12c59c67-b277-458d-b436-a59cc8a9f580" id="12c59c67-b277-458d-b436-a59cc8a9f580-link">3</a></sup></p>



<p>Taking as its point of departure data gathered on figures involved in political life in the early twentieth century and after 1918, this essay seeks to address questions of continuity and rupture within the Fiumian political arena. First, I will show the continuity and discontinuity between municipal councils of the late Habsburg period and the Italian National Council established in 1918. I will then present the alternative political projects which disputed the Italian annexation project and trace the political trajectories of the political elites and their challengers from 1918 to 1924. The essay will demonstrate that the Executive Committee of the Italian National Council was a combination of sections of the old municipal elite and the Italian irredentist minority. From October–November 1918, most of the 1915 wartime municipal councillors disappeared and many of their pre-war municipal predecessors returned to the political scene as members of the Italian National Council. However, inside the Council’s Executive Committee, the loyal supporters of Riccardo Zanella’s – a former leader of the Fiumian Autonomist Party and one of the most popular local politicians – were marginalized. This faction of the pre-war municipal elite returned to the political scene when Zanella engaged in a new political struggle from September 1919 on, in a new international context. These longtime members and supporters of the Autonomist Party gathered around Zanella, such as Matteo Paicurich or Mario Blasich, were elected members of the Constituent Assembly in April 1921. Aside from the old-new municipal elite which countered or formed the Italian National Council, another group of challengers, comprising Socialists and Autonomist Democrats, attempted to establish their own political agenda. Hence, in 1918, there was no national revolution of formerly oppressed nationalities which obtained their coveted freedom from the Habsburg Empire. Rather, old and new political elites and their challengers attempted to maintain or (re)gain positions of power in an unstable and uncertain sovereignty context that lasted more than five years after wartime hostilities had ended. For many, the Empire and its institutions did not disappear in 1918–or 1924. In fact, Fiume’s privileged (and semi-autonomous) administrative status from the Habsburg era continued to be an inspiration for those who challenged the “natural” course of Italian annexation further down the line. International interests and brute force, thanks to local and nation-states’ support (or lack of it), were key factors explaining why the option of Italian annexation ultimately prevailed. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Italian Nationalists, Magyarons, or National Renegades?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The monograph <em>Povijest Rijeke </em>(The History of Rijeka), published in socialist Yugoslavia in the late 1980s, claims that Fiume’s Magyarons (<em>mađaroni</em>) almost entirely transformed into false Italians (<em>talijanaši</em>, i.e., national renegades that became or acted as Italians) in 1918. Those political figures, and the older Italian structures of Fiume, opposed the Slovene, Croat, and Serb (SCS) National Council’s attempt to unify the city with the coalescing South Slav state. Alongside these two national options, an autonomist option appeared, advocating for the city’s independence.<sup data-fn="9a816cc4-b1b0-4338-b757-d85a32e3a0d3" class="fn"><a href="#9a816cc4-b1b0-4338-b757-d85a32e3a0d3" id="9a816cc4-b1b0-4338-b757-d85a32e3a0d3-link">4</a></sup>&nbsp;According to the <em>Povijest Rijeke</em>, the Autonomists were representatives of an anational oligarchy and other sections of the population, mostly comprising locals and national renegade Croatians, and pursued their own material interests in an independent state.<sup data-fn="2073f79d-b510-4527-a77f-65ee30e6d2c2" class="fn"><a href="#2073f79d-b510-4527-a77f-65ee30e6d2c2" id="2073f79d-b510-4527-a77f-65ee30e6d2c2-link">5</a></sup> Older Italian-language monographs, on the other hand, tended to stress the continuity of the city’s Italian character through the centuries. While statements about the slow emergence of Italian national consciousness are present in these works, the Italian nationality of the population and of the local elite remained unquestionable.<sup data-fn="6032df0f-f14e-4704-a71d-f9c285e7dc1b" class="fn"><a href="#6032df0f-f14e-4704-a71d-f9c285e7dc1b" id="6032df0f-f14e-4704-a71d-f9c285e7dc1b-link">6</a></sup> These two opposing historiographical visions tended to simplify rather ambiguous local conditions and political options on national bases. According to nationalistic accounts, it would seem that the Habsburg historical presence vanished almost overnight and that the citizens of Fiume and their elite easily abandoned their (Austro-)Hungarian backgrounds and heritage. Any claims that do not adhere to Italian or Croatian/Yugoslav national affirmations are labelled as bizarre, artificial, and anachronistic, as if the nation-state had been the sole natural option.<sup data-fn="41384b03-d375-4f97-89b1-cb87f0c69919" class="fn"><a href="#41384b03-d375-4f97-89b1-cb87f0c69919" id="41384b03-d375-4f97-89b1-cb87f0c69919-link">7</a></sup></p>



<p>Analysis of the political elites<sup data-fn="d75e063e-0491-43d6-9f08-917f111c131a" class="fn"><a href="#d75e063e-0491-43d6-9f08-917f111c131a" id="d75e063e-0491-43d6-9f08-917f111c131a-link">8</a></sup> and their challengers shows that, at the end of the Hungarian state’s presence in Fiume, multiple possible future statehoods existed. The fading state order was substituted by national political actors that advanced solutions combining the local Habsburg historical framework and political ideologies with emerging worldwide slogans such as democracy and self-determination.<sup data-fn="10a98e88-7af3-418a-9ce8-4920a692a68f" class="fn"><a href="#10a98e88-7af3-418a-9ce8-4920a692a68f" id="10a98e88-7af3-418a-9ce8-4920a692a68f-link">9</a></sup>&nbsp;But national revolutions were neither the only nor even the natural solutions to the power vacuum.<sup data-fn="e2024966-920e-4d43-a780-174fdfc498ae" class="fn"><a href="#e2024966-920e-4d43-a780-174fdfc498ae" id="e2024966-920e-4d43-a780-174fdfc498ae-link">10</a></sup>&nbsp;Habsburg historical structures were reconceptualized in other terms, transformed in terms of class emancipation, economic development, or multinationality. The political interests of contending states, international support for certain options, the lobbying activities of local actors, and sometimes purely circumstantial events allowed singular national annexation to prevail over other options. In other words, from 1918 to 1924 there was no lack of political alternatives to the nation-state.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Hungary’s Italian-Speaking Port&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The legal position of the city of Fiume and its belonging to imagined national communities became problematic around the second half of the nineteenth century.<sup data-fn="73b096e0-5441-478f-ac17-f4def9d82266" class="fn"><a href="#73b096e0-5441-478f-ac17-f4def9d82266" id="73b096e0-5441-478f-ac17-f4def9d82266-link">11</a></sup> The ideology of Croatian state right and the Croatian national movement considered the city part of its national body, while the city’s Italian-speaking local elite was averse to the Croatian vision. Without expressing Italian annexationist attitudes, the local elite wanted to maintain the city’s position as an autonomous municipality and thus aligned itself with the Hungarian political elite. The result of the 1868 Croatian–Hungarian Settlement (<em>Nagodba</em>) was a provisional agreement that the city, geographically separated from Hungary proper, would be considered attached to the Hungarian crown and not to the nearby Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. As a <em>corpus separatum</em>, Fiume was assured a degree of autonomy and placed under Hungarian authority.<sup data-fn="f236158d-6bd0-47ca-a7c2-cc31c9bfc867" class="fn"><a href="#f236158d-6bd0-47ca-a7c2-cc31c9bfc867" id="f236158d-6bd0-47ca-a7c2-cc31c9bfc867-link">12</a></sup></p>



<p>Consequently, Fiumian citizens elected their municipal council as well as one deputy to the lower house of the Hungarian parliament, the House of Representatives (<em>Képviselőház</em>), but not representatives to the Croatian Diet (<em>Sabor</em>). To add a layer of complexity, the city was entitled to elect representatives to the Croatian Diet, a political right denied it by the civic elite in order to demonstrate Fiume’s lack of connection to Croatia-Slavonia. The right to vote in local and parliamentary elections was restricted to a minority that, over the years, slowly increased. Furthermore, the modalities of the elections were also restrictive: although local ballots were written and secret, parliamentary elections were, as in the rest of the Kingdom of Hungary, public and oral.<sup data-fn="6f7bdb05-6834-41bc-8f2a-2493f7162d7a" class="fn"><a href="#6f7bdb05-6834-41bc-8f2a-2493f7162d7a" id="6f7bdb05-6834-41bc-8f2a-2493f7162d7a-link">13</a></sup> Members of the municipal council were initially representatives of a merchant, industrial, and artisan elite, while the local patricians’ presence was almost insignificant.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>On the local level, the Hungarian state was represented by the governor. The governor, appointed by the (emperor-)king upon agreement with the Hungarian prime minister and the minister of commerce, was a member of the Hungarian nobility, and ex officio the Fiumian representative to the House of Magnates (<em>Főrendiház</em>). Municipal institutions, such as local schools and the hospital, used Italian as the official language, and Fiumian officialdom also possessed the right to communicate with the Hungarian state in Italian. While this was perhaps surprising considering the policies of Magyarization in late-nineteenth-century Hungary, in practical terms, it made sense to use Italian as Fiume’s working official language: until at least 1910, most of Fiume’s population did not know Hungarian, while Croatian (which many did speak) was seen as a language which would upset the administrative division of the city from Croatia-Slavonia, thereby threatening the maintenance of the <em>corpus</em> <em>separatum</em>.<sup data-fn="1447c7ca-60a7-4945-9af3-329921406152" class="fn"><a href="#1447c7ca-60a7-4945-9af3-329921406152" id="1447c7ca-60a7-4945-9af3-329921406152-link">14</a></sup> Just beyond Fiume’s administrative border, in territory under Croatian-Slavonian authority, a new suburb, Sušak, developed and served as a sort of Croatian counterpart to the Italian-speaking enclave of Fiume. United in curbing Croatian political incursion into the <em>corpus separatum</em>, Fiume’s local elite and the Hungarian authorities enjoyed a quite successful “honeymoon” in the first decades after 1868. However, towards the turn of the century, things began to change, partially due to Fiume’s increased size and importance, partially in response to Budapest’s increased efforts to centralize its kingdom.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The result was the formation of a new local political group, the Autonomists, who collected ever more votes by advocating self-government for Fiume, something the Hungarian metropole was not willing to concede. The Autonomists were also an expression of an emerging middle class that, through appeals to the Italian language and local patriotism, sought to maintain at least the existing system of self-government. The only Hungarian port and the only official Italian-language territory thus became something of a political issue for Hungary. Furthermore, Hungarian political alliances and domestic instability affected the local scenario. A first split inside the Autonomist Party occurred during the parliamentary elections of 1901. While the then-leader of the Autonomist Party, Michele/Mihály Maylender, supported the former Hungarian governor as candidate for the lower house of the Hungarian Diet, another group advocated the election of Riccardo Zanella (Fiume, 1875–Rome, 1959) as a genuine Fiumian candidate. The former Hungarian governor won the election, but it was the start of a division of the party into two factions, one close to the former Liberal Party, and another closer to the Coalition Parties. As the Coalition Parties’ candidate, Zanella, now champion of the Autonomist Party, won a parliamentary seat in 1905 and again in 1906.<sup data-fn="6805a662-11d7-4e27-b405-e4826ec84269" class="fn"><a href="#6805a662-11d7-4e27-b405-e4826ec84269" id="6805a662-11d7-4e27-b405-e4826ec84269-link">15</a></sup> After the overthrow of the Coalition government, the Autonomists split between István Tisza’s supporters and opponents and created two rival factions: the Autonomist Party and the Autonomist League. Tisza’s opponents, the Autonomist Party, held the majority in the municipal council until 1911, when the body was dissolved by order of the prime minister. The newly elected Autonomist League council majority lasted until 1913, when the governor commissioned the municipal council, inciting a few Italian irredentists to plant a bomb at the Governor’s Palace. Tisza’s autocracy increased political animosity, enhancing the appeal of Italian irredentism among a segment of Fiume’s youth. Radical action was an expression of politically active youngsters who were members of <em>Giovine Fiume</em> (Young Fiume) and who considered the Italian nation-state a real alternative state structure to the Kingdom of Hungary. As we will see, some members of that political minority would become important in the events after 1918.&nbsp;</p>



<p>New elections were held in 1914, again resulting in a majority on a municipal council hostile to Tisza and in the election of Zanella as mayor. The mayor’s election by the municipal council had to be confirmed by the king, but Zanella’s mayorship was rejected by Franz Joseph under the influence of higher Hungarian authorities. After Italy’s entry into the war on the side of the Entente, and evident conflicts between Budapest and Fiume regarding the city’s self-government rights and the degree of centralization,<sup data-fn="dbc9ca5f-dd93-4a39-b1f6-16a0ba55aa89" class="fn"><a href="#dbc9ca5f-dd93-4a39-b1f6-16a0ba55aa89" id="dbc9ca5f-dd93-4a39-b1f6-16a0ba55aa89-link">16</a></sup>&nbsp;elections for the complete renewal of the municipal council were held in July 1915. With only one official list of candidates, ethnic Hungarians gained a significant number of seats in the municipal council for the first time.<sup data-fn="e2f1b395-e169-4f77-acfc-7125b3759ecd" class="fn"><a href="#e2f1b395-e169-4f77-acfc-7125b3759ecd" id="e2f1b395-e169-4f77-acfc-7125b3759ecd-link">17</a></sup> Antonio Vio (Fiume, 1875–Bolzano, 1949), the Fiumian parliamentary deputy elected in 1911 as representative of the Autonomist League (the pro-Tisza faction), became a municipal councillor and was chosen as the city’s wartime mayor. After parliamentary by-elections in the autumn of 1915, Vio’s parliamentary seat was filled by Andrea Ossoinack (Fiume, 1876–Merano, 1965),<sup data-fn="8b42fb2a-6ad2-42fc-82b7-1d4d40e89a8c" class="fn"><a href="#8b42fb2a-6ad2-42fc-82b7-1d4d40e89a8c" id="8b42fb2a-6ad2-42fc-82b7-1d4d40e89a8c-link">18</a></sup>&nbsp;another champion of the Autonomist League.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The municipal council continued to operate throughout entire war, exposing its (Hungarian) Habsburg loyalty. As Vio stated after accepting the position of mayor, “we will find the best protection for all our heritage [<em>Fiumian language and rights</em>, author’s note] only in faith to the Nation and in sincere attachment to the Hungarian state which arose and made this city flourish.”<sup data-fn="0671ef3e-fff6-4d83-a6c8-1edf18eb9232" class="fn"><a href="#0671ef3e-fff6-4d83-a6c8-1edf18eb9232" id="0671ef3e-fff6-4d83-a6c8-1edf18eb9232-link">19</a></sup> Symbolically, in 1916, Fiume’s main promenade was renamed to honour the recently deceased Franz Joseph, while just a few months beforehand the municipal council had decided to award honorary citizenship to Tisza.<sup data-fn="8465a771-3c2e-4de1-bdcf-5943b40c69b7" class="fn"><a href="#8465a771-3c2e-4de1-bdcf-5943b40c69b7" id="8465a771-3c2e-4de1-bdcf-5943b40c69b7-link">20</a></sup> At the same time, Italian citizens, Fiumians, and prominent members of political and cultural associations considered potentially hostile to the Hungarian state were arrested and sent to camps in the Hungarian hinterland. Local Italian historiography recalled the pressure and persecution from the Hungarian state police, which replaced the municipal police in 1916. Additionally, food shortages made the situation in the city difficult.<sup data-fn="b4b4f81d-210e-4ecf-b38c-40a5d01aeda4" class="fn"><a href="#b4b4f81d-210e-4ecf-b38c-40a5d01aeda4" id="b4b4f81d-210e-4ecf-b38c-40a5d01aeda4-link">21</a></sup> Reasonably, the end of the war was perceived as a moment of relief and freedom.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">From Hungarian State Presence to Italian Annexation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>During the four years of war, nine municipal council mandates became vacant due to deaths and resignations. Thus, in September 1918, the last Habsburg-era by-elections were held. These elections were considered almost worthless, according to a local newspaper, since half the voters were still conscripted and there was only one list of candidates, which represented mostly, if not exclusively, the upper social strata.<sup data-fn="a14672bf-60a1-4d99-9d1c-72777ffca054" class="fn"><a href="#a14672bf-60a1-4d99-9d1c-72777ffca054" id="a14672bf-60a1-4d99-9d1c-72777ffca054-link">22</a></sup> On the contrary, a significant part of the electorate turned out,<sup data-fn="4e184054-a4cf-4c9e-ae34-8af0984274ca" class="fn"><a href="#4e184054-a4cf-4c9e-ae34-8af0984274ca" id="4e184054-a4cf-4c9e-ae34-8af0984274ca-link">23</a></sup> but the period of political participation within the existing local Habsburg-Hungarian system was brought to an end by subsequent events. The newly elected had the opportunity to attend only two sessions of the municipal council, since the events of October 1918 changed the entire system of power. When Emperor Karl’s federalization manifesto was read in the Hungarian House of Representatives on 18 October, Fiumian deputy Ossoinack declared that Fiume would not become part of Croatia and the city, of Italian character, would adhere to its right to self-determination, demanding that historic rights be respected.<sup data-fn="6c5a6a0f-d674-40f9-99dd-09a1c08babce" class="fn"><a href="#6c5a6a0f-d674-40f9-99dd-09a1c08babce" id="6c5a6a0f-d674-40f9-99dd-09a1c08babce-link">24</a></sup> A day later, the Central Committee of the SCS National Council in Zagreb also rejected the emperor’s manifesto, asking for the union of all its people in their ethnic territory. Fiume, or rather Rijeka, was listed as part of this ethnic territory. In Fiume itself, the atmosphere became tense. Five days after Ossoinack’s speech, following a Croatian (Yugoslav) national manifestation in Sušak, regular military troops of Croatian nationality clashed with the Hungarian state police, provoking the assault by many citizens on the prison and the local court. Furthermore, the events of 23 October were an opportunity for night-time looting of stores.<sup data-fn="617f6c78-3be6-438a-83e5-78c6d71e2e3b" class="fn"><a href="#617f6c78-3be6-438a-83e5-78c6d71e2e3b" id="617f6c78-3be6-438a-83e5-78c6d71e2e3b-link">25</a></sup> The riots would become another expedient propaganda device with which to demonstrate the potential violence the Croatian menace would direct towards Italian Fiume. Meanwhile, the Hungarian prime minister resigned, making the situation precarious on both the central and the local levels. On 29 October, in a meeting called by the mayor, many civic representatives decided to confirm Antonio Vio as acting mayor and to create an (Italian) National Committee under the chairmanship of Antonio Grossich (Draguccio/Draguć, 1849–Fiume, 1926).<sup data-fn="6c063ea1-dbfd-427f-9c38-aea9fb111075" class="fn"><a href="#6c063ea1-dbfd-427f-9c38-aea9fb111075" id="6c063ea1-dbfd-427f-9c38-aea9fb111075-link">26</a></sup> The next day, the Italian National Council, enlarged by new members, confirmed the mayor once more, declared the municipal council’s mandates terminated, and took its place.<sup data-fn="7f869bed-4e9b-46b7-8f42-6936155c0dcd" class="fn"><a href="#7f869bed-4e9b-46b7-8f42-6936155c0dcd" id="7f869bed-4e9b-46b7-8f42-6936155c0dcd-link">27</a></sup> On 29 October, the Croatian <em>Sabor</em> dissolved all ties with Cisleithania and the Kingdom of Hungary and proclaimed Dalmatia-Croatia-Slavonia with Rijeka as an independent state, recognizing the SCS National Council as its supreme authority. That day, the Hungarian Governor, left without instructions, handed over the Governor’s Palace to representatives of the SCS National Council of Rijeka-Sušak. As the name indicates, the SCS National Council perceived the two separate administrative units as a nationally unified entity. However, the SCS National Council was composed mainly of figures active in Sušak, the actual challengers to the Fiumian municipal elite, while the Italian National Council was comprised of Fiumians.<sup data-fn="876fa853-39c5-4b8c-90a6-814fbf07ded1" class="fn"><a href="#876fa853-39c5-4b8c-90a6-814fbf07ded1" id="876fa853-39c5-4b8c-90a6-814fbf07ded1-link">28</a></sup> The two national councils established relations, and on 30 October the head of the Sušak District, Konstantin Rojčević, took office as Commissioner for Rijeka and Sušak, designated by the SCS National Council in Zagreb. A day later, the lawyer Rikard Lenac (Rijeka, 1868–1949) was designated high sheriff (<em>veliki župan</em>) of Rijeka and the district by the SCS National Council in Zagreb and claimed the prerogatives of the former office of governor without abolishing Fiumian local civic institutions.<sup data-fn="d2ef8b27-6b7a-490e-9673-7ccc933ff4af" class="fn"><a href="#d2ef8b27-6b7a-490e-9673-7ccc933ff4af" id="d2ef8b27-6b7a-490e-9673-7ccc933ff4af-link">29</a></sup> The Italian National Council argued that, with the Hungarian state’s presence terminated, the city, as a legal body, was free to decide its own future. For the SCS National Council, Fiume was part of the newly proclaimed South Slav state with its own newly established institutions. Despite the legal dispute, the predominance of one national council over the other was determined rather by the progress of events. As in the case of the governor, the Hungarian central institutions abandoned their offices without any opposition. The state police force, introduced in 1916, was disbanded by the Hungarian prime minister on 29 October and replaced by a civil guard created under the authority of the city.<sup data-fn="68518def-1cf9-4075-a43b-04716b79fe98" class="fn"><a href="#68518def-1cf9-4075-a43b-04716b79fe98" id="68518def-1cf9-4075-a43b-04716b79fe98-link">30</a></sup> On the other side, Croatian Habsburg military units and Croatian youth volunteers organized in a national guard recognized the SCS National Council as the political authority to which they owed allegiance. None represented a war-winning party, and the Italian National Council, fearing usurpation, asked for the intervention of the Italian army. On 4 November, an Italian fleet came to town “to protect the Italians,” albeit without landing troops. On 15 November, two Serbian battalions arrived in Fiume, taking charge of the Croatian troops there. After negotiations with Italian occupational authorities, and following orders from superiors from the Entente, the Serbian army retreated. On 17 November, the city of Fiume was occupied by Italian troops, some American soldiers, and British officers, making the occupation an Interallied one. The Italian general dismissed the Croatian high sheriff from the Governor’s office and recognized the Italian National Council as the only local authority.<sup data-fn="0bd97db8-48f3-406e-b771-8d20b6e6da4f" class="fn"><a href="#0bd97db8-48f3-406e-b771-8d20b6e6da4f" id="0bd97db8-48f3-406e-b771-8d20b6e6da4f-link">31</a></sup> This way, the transition to the South Slav state was sidelined as a potential option. In the following days, French troops, commanded by a general with a higher rank than the Italian general, arrived in the town to establish a logistical base for the <em>Armeé d’Orient</em>. In response, the Italian government substituted their general with another of higher rank than the French one. Fiume, which was not promised to Italy in the Treaty of London, became a contested object between Italy and the newly forming South Slav state. However, these were not the only contestants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In July 1919, tensions between the Italian National Council’s armed group, pro-Italian civilians, and Italian and French soldiers escalated, resulting in the death of a few Vietnamese soldiers, members of the French colonial troops. The Entente forces reacted, creating a commission that decided that most of the Italian armed units had to leave Fiume. Fearing that the city’s annexation to Italy was threatened, the Italian National Council hailed D’Annunzio’s arrival in September 1919—doing so without opposition from the Italian army. Soon, the Interallied units abandoned the city, but the Italian National Council’s plan to force the Italian government to proclaim annexation was a failure. Peace talks continued until the end of 1920, while D’Annunzio tried to transform the town into his own political project antithetic to liberal democracy.<sup data-fn="4fa2cab7-5979-41f5-8c5f-72773364aa06" class="fn"><a href="#4fa2cab7-5979-41f5-8c5f-72773364aa06" id="4fa2cab7-5979-41f5-8c5f-72773364aa06-link">32</a></sup></p>



<p> When a treaty was signed between the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in November 1920, D’Annunzio and his legionnaires were forced to leave the city after a brief conflict with the Italian army in the late December of 1920. The Italian National Council had to prepare elections to hand over power to a new, to-be-elected government of the Fiumian Free State. The Free State of Fiume was politically unstable, however, due to the fierce rivalry between Italian annexationists and Fiumian Autonomists, with the annexationist group substantially continuing to hold onto power on the local level. Although the April 1921 elections gave the majority to the Autonomists, this faction was able to exercise power in Fiume only from October 1921 to March 1922, subsequently languishing in exile in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Negotiations between Italy and the Kingdom of SCS reassumed, and another peace treaty was signed at the beginning of 1924, marking the official annexation of the city to Italy.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Italian National Council&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Though the membership of the Italian National Council increased following the events of October 1918,<sup data-fn="cad8065b-216c-4fa7-8f93-f74593f857a0" class="fn"><a href="#cad8065b-216c-4fa7-8f93-f74593f857a0" id="cad8065b-216c-4fa7-8f93-f74593f857a0-link">33</a></sup> the real political power was held by an Executive Committee, elected by members present at the meeting of 29 October 1918. By the end of 1918, the ten-member Executive Committee had been enlarged by another eight figures, followed by a further three in January 1919 and five more in June 1919.<sup data-fn="1459df76-712e-4055-846f-655b8cf2d0a3" class="fn"><a href="#1459df76-712e-4055-846f-655b8cf2d0a3" id="1459df76-712e-4055-846f-655b8cf2d0a3-link">34</a></sup> None of the first ten members of the Executive Committee had participated in the municipal council elections of July 1915 or September 1918.<sup data-fn="afe14d5d-372a-48f6-89d2-7c766729d9b6" class="fn"><a href="#afe14d5d-372a-48f6-89d2-7c766729d9b6" id="afe14d5d-372a-48f6-89d2-7c766729d9b6-link">35</a></sup> Six had been deputies of the municipal council in previous years, while others appear to have never been elected previously.<sup data-fn="d17eb9f7-5061-4365-a566-56658dc7f6ed" class="fn"><a href="#d17eb9f7-5061-4365-a566-56658dc7f6ed" id="d17eb9f7-5061-4365-a566-56658dc7f6ed-link">36</a></sup> On the other side, the Committee’s eight new members, chosen before the end of 1918, were largely deputies elected in May 1915, among them the mayor from 1914 and the former deputy for Fiume in the Hungarian parliament.<sup data-fn="d62a4706-593c-47fc-93f8-2077a0d3c669" class="fn"><a href="#d62a4706-593c-47fc-93f8-2077a0d3c669" id="d62a4706-593c-47fc-93f8-2077a0d3c669-link">37</a></sup> Among the three figures chosen in January, none of them were municipal councillors elected in 1915 or in 1918. However, one had previously been elected a member of the municipal council in the Habsburg era, one had a family member who had been elected in 1915, and one had both been previously elected and had a family member elected.<sup data-fn="a9dcb9b4-2321-46c6-987a-86a25d016e81" class="fn"><a href="#a9dcb9b4-2321-46c6-987a-86a25d016e81" id="a9dcb9b4-2321-46c6-987a-86a25d016e81-link">38</a></sup> The final enlargement in June 1919 was undertaken at the request of Fiumians who had fought in the war as Italian army volunteers. The group was composed of a younger generation, with the exception of Mario Blasich, elected municipal councillor in 1914, who did not actually accept the position on the Executive Committee of the Italian National Council.<sup data-fn="c2146c4b-2220-40d4-b8a2-a013e578e0c3" class="fn"><a href="#c2146c4b-2220-40d4-b8a2-a013e578e0c3" id="c2146c4b-2220-40d4-b8a2-a013e578e0c3-link">39</a></sup> The Executive Committee included two others who had never been elected previously,<sup data-fn="ce4f10db-cf1f-40b6-b842-7a1559c0d33e" class="fn"><a href="#ce4f10db-cf1f-40b6-b842-7a1559c0d33e" id="ce4f10db-cf1f-40b6-b842-7a1559c0d33e-link">40</a></sup> while six were members of the irredentist association <em>Giovine Fiume</em>.<sup data-fn="1d36256c-c7f8-4ffc-ba7d-6274d591b70d" class="fn"><a href="#1d36256c-c7f8-4ffc-ba7d-6274d591b70d" id="1d36256c-c7f8-4ffc-ba7d-6274d591b70d-link">41</a></sup> Only three had no political experience at all, though two were engaged in the city’s social life as members of an association that promoted Italian language and culture.<sup data-fn="84cecadb-327f-4e4d-a333-0fd0bd29ba2b" class="fn"><a href="#84cecadb-327f-4e4d-a333-0fd0bd29ba2b" id="84cecadb-327f-4e4d-a333-0fd0bd29ba2b-link">42</a></sup> Thus, the Executive Committee was mostly made up of individuals with previous political experience and institutional familiarity with the local Hungarian power structure. This group was joined by elements of the former Italian irredentist movement, some of whom had fought as volunteers in the Italian army. There was no complete continuity between the wartime municipal council and the Italian National Council, and a revolution—in terms of the rise to power of an entirely new elite—certainly did not occur. Ethnic Hungarian municipal councillors completely disappeared, and with them the majority of the elected municipal councillors from 1915. Magyars and “Magyarons” did not transform into fake Italians; rather, some political figures, formerly champions of state-loyal autonomism, now presented themselves as Italian patriots. Simultaneously, an Italian irredentist minority was beginning to advance thanks to the status gained on the battlefield as Italian volunteers.<sup data-fn="af7e94e6-735d-4e89-b204-f9dea672a6cb" class="fn"><a href="#af7e94e6-735d-4e89-b204-f9dea672a6cb" id="af7e94e6-735d-4e89-b204-f9dea672a6cb-link">43</a></sup></p>



<p>This side-switching did not go unnoticed by contemporaries. The presence of an old-new elite was recognized by a local Croatian newspaper which attacked, in articles written in Italian, members of the Italian National Council for their former Habsburg patriotism. The president of the Italian National Council, the physician Antonio Grossich, was criticized for his conduct during the war, but also for his alleged Croatian ethnic origins. Still, Grossich’s Italian annexationist position was eased by his forced removal from the town by the Hungarian authorities in 1915.<sup data-fn="e1bf29e9-780c-48bc-8b6b-c415ecc72060" class="fn"><a href="#e1bf29e9-780c-48bc-8b6b-c415ecc72060" id="e1bf29e9-780c-48bc-8b6b-c415ecc72060-link">44</a></sup> Someone who found himself in a more difficult position was the wartime mayor Antonio Vio. Not only had he championed the Autonomist League before and during the war, but his father and brothers had aligned themselves with Croatian national ideals and hence he found himself labelled a political and moral acrobat.<sup data-fn="ea9d4935-a065-424b-b136-123e3a1736ad" class="fn"><a href="#ea9d4935-a065-424b-b136-123e3a1736ad" id="ea9d4935-a065-424b-b136-123e3a1736ad-link">45</a></sup> Former parliamentary deputy Ossoinack, on the other hand, was attacked on ethnic grounds.<sup data-fn="0b0bf812-a200-4d00-b7f7-4679ec0e1d48" class="fn"><a href="#0b0bf812-a200-4d00-b7f7-4679ec0e1d48" id="0b0bf812-a200-4d00-b7f7-4679ec0e1d48-link">46</a></sup> As Ljubinka Karpowicz has noted, the two were mentioned alongside four other members of the Executive Committee as affiliates of the Hungarian Masonic lodge Sirius.<sup data-fn="66435e88-6623-44b8-b3c9-3e30dd9260bf" class="fn"><a href="#66435e88-6623-44b8-b3c9-3e30dd9260bf" id="66435e88-6623-44b8-b3c9-3e30dd9260bf-link">47</a></sup> The champions of Italian annexation had thus previously held positions of socio-political prestige and power in the Habsburg-Hungarian system and had tried to maintain it.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The preservation of power and the lack of change to the elite is precisely the subject touched upon by opponents of the Italian National Council. In an Autonomist pamphlet published in 1920, the champions of the Italian National Council are labelled former Tisza supporters and Habsburg loyalists.<sup data-fn="dfcb4eda-0cdc-4542-b066-89bce8cd2942" class="fn"><a href="#dfcb4eda-0cdc-4542-b066-89bce8cd2942" id="dfcb4eda-0cdc-4542-b066-89bce8cd2942-link">48</a></sup> Furthermore, the old-new elite were publicly accused of obtaining economic advantages in the transition period by the incorrect management of supplies which had been stocked in city warehouses for the former Austro-Hungarian army. In line with political ideals adapting to new contingencies, from October–November 1918 to a large part of 1919, even for the followers of the Autonomist Party, annexation to Italy was unquestionable. What was controversial was rather the scenario in which (yet-to-be) past Habsburg figures among the most loyal to the government in Budapest led the Italian National Council and the economic malfeasance of the transition period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Hence, the Italian National Council needed more legitimization; its authority was even questioned abroad by the Entente’s special commission investigating the violence in July 1919. And so new elections were to be organized. Unsurprisingly, they were held at a moment favourable to the new-old elite. When diplomatic negotiations over Fiume’s future seemed to have failed to bring Italian annexation, D’Annunzio was invited to the city by the Italian National Council in September 1919. A month later, in October 1919, elections were organized for the municipal council, which would function both as the municipal council and the Italian National Council. For the first time, the right to vote was extended to citizens of both sexes over the age of 20. Though women gained passive and active political rights, they only received three of the 56 seats and were the least voted-for. More than 68 per cent of the electorate voted for the sole list present, that of the National Union.<sup data-fn="57f52066-fcc6-4622-a7c7-0b15e6b3d3db" class="fn"><a href="#57f52066-fcc6-4622-a7c7-0b15e6b3d3db" id="57f52066-fcc6-4622-a7c7-0b15e6b3d3db-link">49</a></sup> Significantly, the Autonomist Party officially abstained from proposing candidates, calling on their supporters to vote for the only list to demonstrate that the population of Fiume wanted annexation to Italy.<sup data-fn="b60d4779-1749-4550-95e4-5cf969ff6564" class="fn"><a href="#b60d4779-1749-4550-95e4-5cf969ff6564" id="b60d4779-1749-4550-95e4-5cf969ff6564-link">50</a></sup></p>



<p>The newly elected municipal council included figures without previous political experience and was more socially diverse than the previous councils.<sup data-fn="2f5daa3c-60e0-45e5-9920-84791f5a9318" class="fn"><a href="#2f5daa3c-60e0-45e5-9920-84791f5a9318" id="2f5daa3c-60e0-45e5-9920-84791f5a9318-link">51</a></sup>&nbsp;Besides the female presence and some newly represented professions—for example in the form of a few journalists, a carpenter, and a tobacco factory worker—other figures maintained or regained their political positions. Former parliamentary deputy Ossoinack and at least fifteen other councillors had already been elected in previous ballots.<sup data-fn="6ff856c7-4d31-422b-b62c-7d8c4e879458" class="fn"><a href="#6ff856c7-4d31-422b-b62c-7d8c4e879458" id="6ff856c7-4d31-422b-b62c-7d8c4e879458-link">52</a></sup> Additionally, four other deputies had family members that had been elected previously.<sup data-fn="3ed00831-679f-4a8b-bb56-7c15b05e2264" class="fn"><a href="#3ed00831-679f-4a8b-bb56-7c15b05e2264" id="3ed00831-679f-4a8b-bb56-7c15b05e2264-link">53</a></sup> Though there were cases of representatives that had previously been affiliated with the Autonomist League, only two councillors had been members of the 1915–18 municipal council. The political elite most loyal to the former Hungarian state was sidelined, but its place was not taken over entirely by a new one. The new municipal council/National Council was a combination of the Autonomist Party’s old members, former members of the Italian irredentist youth, and ascendant figures of the Italian nationalist and soon-to-be fascist movement.<sup data-fn="161e72c0-4eba-4cf4-ab2c-0cba6e1ba3a7" class="fn"><a href="#161e72c0-4eba-4cf4-ab2c-0cba6e1ba3a7" id="161e72c0-4eba-4cf4-ab2c-0cba6e1ba3a7-link">54</a></sup> A detailed analysis of less-known councillors’ biographies could provide further data on their political, social, and associational engagement before 1918, helping us to understand the reasons for their involvement with the National Council. Currently, it seems that the majority were not so popular, or were considered politically irrelevant. This points to one reason why, in the 1921 Constituent Assembly election, the Nationalist Bloc advanced the candidacies of only half of the municipal councillors elected in October 1919.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Though the 1921 election criteria were similar to those for the 1919 elections, women were completely excluded as candidates, social diversification decreased, and the figures proposed by the Nationalist Bloc were mainly those who had been politically established before 1914.<sup data-fn="20b17cef-4a19-4cc5-98a6-5d324ca14f0d" class="fn"><a href="#20b17cef-4a19-4cc5-98a6-5d324ca14f0d" id="20b17cef-4a19-4cc5-98a6-5d324ca14f0d-link">55</a></sup> Furthermore, one former member of the 1919 city council and the Italian National Council aligned with the Autonomist Bloc, running as their candidate.<sup data-fn="f8fea78d-3f1a-438b-80b2-4d3c46f9e8d2" class="fn"><a href="#f8fea78d-3f1a-438b-80b2-4d3c46f9e8d2" id="f8fea78d-3f1a-438b-80b2-4d3c46f9e8d2-link">56</a></sup> The annexation movement was not so solid, and the international treaties and the ousting of D’Annunzio certainly shaped the revival of political options.<sup data-fn="9a5beed5-22a3-40db-bbe2-dc28b56c60e5" class="fn"><a href="#9a5beed5-22a3-40db-bbe2-dc28b56c60e5" id="9a5beed5-22a3-40db-bbe2-dc28b56c60e5-link">57</a></sup> Moreover, two years of economic uncertainty and D’Annunzio’s political experimentations conditioned the electorate to favour political options that promoted a return to normality. However, the political options that opposed Italian annexation did not appear suddenly when the Free State was established. Alternative political agendas had already appeared in October 1918, when alleged and presumed national belonging was becoming the main option.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">(A)national Alternatives&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Local Socialists’ response to the collapse of Habsburg state institutions was almost immediate. Juxtaposed to the two National Councils, the local Socialists established a Workers’ Council on 30 October 1918.<sup data-fn="fa875ec7-496e-4473-ae77-5cd9418e7bf1" class="fn"><a href="#fa875ec7-496e-4473-ae77-5cd9418e7bf1" id="fa875ec7-496e-4473-ae77-5cd9418e7bf1-link">58</a></sup> The Workers’ Council was the local Socialist Party’s class-based response to ideas driven by the nationalist and bourgeois elites. The thirty-one council members were mainly industrial workers and trade union representatives whose highest institutional activity had been with the Workers’ Sickness Fund.<sup data-fn="8fa4d6b3-d5b3-49b4-9fe9-a0362f4a5eda" class="fn"><a href="#8fa4d6b3-d5b3-49b4-9fe9-a0362f4a5eda" id="8fa4d6b3-d5b3-49b4-9fe9-a0362f4a5eda-link">59</a></sup> The Socialists had been on the institutional fringes of Fiumian local society in the late Habsburg era and were challengers to the consolidated elites. The Workers’ Council, recalling President Wilson’s principles of self-determination, asked the Italian National Council for a plebiscite regarding the city’s future. The right to vote in the plebiscite had to be extended to all people 18 years of age and older, of both sexes, resident in Fiume for at least one year, regardless of their nationality. The Socialists’ position on the plebiscite, without naming the options, became more elaborate in the days that followed. When Italian troops entered the town on 17 November 1918, the Socialists organized a public meeting at which they voted against any annexation of the city, instead calling for the establishment of Fiume as a free, independent republic under the protection of the Socialist International.<sup data-fn="0dabe78d-4914-4d8b-8767-5bcaa7d722bc" class="fn"><a href="#0dabe78d-4914-4d8b-8767-5bcaa7d722bc" id="0dabe78d-4914-4d8b-8767-5bcaa7d722bc-link">60</a></sup></p>



<p>Though class-based, the Socialists’ attitude towards the old-new elite in the city was still ambiguous. They protested against Croatian annexation plans and recognized the Italian National Council as the local political power. At the end of October 1918, the Workers’ Council established an armed unit, the Red Guards, that collaborated with the Italian National Council in guarding municipal storehouses. That way, the Socialists gave a sign that the Italian National Council was to some extent the successor to the municipal council. Their very recognition of this demonstrates that the Socialists were still thinking within legal Habsburg-Hungarian terms. For instance, they declared that the Workers’ Sickness Fund had to be autonomous and rejected intervention by the Italian National Council or Zagreb in its affairs.<sup data-fn="22da09c3-cc45-47d1-924b-2ada251cf9a0" class="fn"><a href="#22da09c3-cc45-47d1-924b-2ada251cf9a0" id="22da09c3-cc45-47d1-924b-2ada251cf9a0-link">61</a></sup> For the Socialists, the Empire and its institutions were not yet dead. If criticism in a local Italian newspaper is to be taken seriously, then the Socialists still continued to display their dynastic loyalty in November 1918: Emperor-King and Empress-Queen portraits still hung inside the building of the Socialist-controlled Fund.<sup data-fn="acb15b40-6850-4a34-9466-a4fbabc8d76b" class="fn"><a href="#acb15b40-6850-4a34-9466-a4fbabc8d76b" id="acb15b40-6850-4a34-9466-a4fbabc8d76b-link">62</a></sup> For the Italian nationalist newspaper, the Socialists were “non-Italians” and “black-yellow” patriots. But the Socialists gave their own reading of the <em>corpus separatum</em> experience in class terms. Instead of Italian self-determination, the city had to become an independent republic.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Socialists continued to support the idea of a free state in the years to come, when the party transformed into the Communist Party of Fiume in 1921. In one of the last letters written to the Communist Party of Italy in 1923, the local Communists called for mass action against the annexation of Fiume to Italy.<sup data-fn="4550e4bb-9011-4743-85b4-d9d50919202a" class="fn"><a href="#4550e4bb-9011-4743-85b4-d9d50919202a" id="4550e4bb-9011-4743-85b4-d9d50919202a-link">63</a></sup> The Socialists, and later the Communists, sought to maintain the previous international and local pre-1918 status by supporting the alternative option of a free state on class grounds, something they considered similar to the city’s late-Habsburg autonomy. This position was backed by their unwillingness to become part of Italy. That solution would mean the destruction of the city’s economy, and the Socialists believed that—given the multinational character of the population— annexation to a nation-state was the wrong solution. As the Socialist leader Árpád Simon affirmed in an interview published in September 1919, “Fiume is an international centre, a convergence point of various races [<em>to be understood as ethnicities or nationalities</em>, author’s note], for whom a political regime based on neutrality is suitable.”<sup data-fn="3254b563-1812-4b03-9b97-290965b40613" class="fn"><a href="#3254b563-1812-4b03-9b97-290965b40613" id="3254b563-1812-4b03-9b97-290965b40613-link">64</a></sup></p>



<p>One may argue that this internationalistic position was due to a lack of “Italians” among the Socialists. Compared to the other political options, the Socialist leaders were “more Hungarian,” as Simon and Samuele Mayländer were. Yet the Socialist and Communist base was not exclusively or even mostly made up of ethnic Hungarians—despite the fact that some of them became well known later, such as the Seidenfeld and Blüch sisters.<sup data-fn="49ec9ade-9b52-454a-9c8d-8c769aa4ef47" class="fn"><a href="#49ec9ade-9b52-454a-9c8d-8c769aa4ef47" id="49ec9ade-9b52-454a-9c8d-8c769aa4ef47-link">65</a></sup>&nbsp;Regarding&nbsp;the ethnicity of these families, their Jewish origins should&nbsp;probably&nbsp;be stressed&nbsp;more. For instance, the mass gathering in November 1918 was attended by more than a thousand workers and May Day 1919 saw the participation of thousands of people, regardless of their nationality. On both occasions, speeches were delivered in Italian, Croatian, and Hungarian, demonstrating the multinational character of the Socialists’ supporters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite its nationally inclusive character, the Socialist and Communist political option still remained on the margins. Weak connections with revolutionary Budapest, the presence and strength of right-wing military and paramilitary units in Fiume, a lack of support or interest on the part of international socialist/communist organizations—and even the lack of local radical revolutionary stances—all played a role in sidelining local Socialists and Communists in the local political arena.<sup data-fn="e7403f80-31dd-49d9-aabb-a873ae06dff7" class="fn"><a href="#e7403f80-31dd-49d9-aabb-a873ae06dff7" id="e7403f80-31dd-49d9-aabb-a873ae06dff7-link">66</a></sup></p>



<p>In the political arena more generally, Hungarians and pro-Hungarian forces almost vanished during the transition period, pushed aside by the power struggle between the respective supporters of a Croatian, an Italian, and an independent state.<sup data-fn="15a1a4eb-521e-4802-9d24-2582553b92ae" class="fn"><a href="#15a1a4eb-521e-4802-9d24-2582553b92ae" id="15a1a4eb-521e-4802-9d24-2582553b92ae-link">67</a></sup> However, there was a minor attempt worth noting. In 1920, Desző Dárday (Bratislava/Pressburg/Pozsony, 1869–Budapest, 1922), a member of the former governors’ staff, wrote a small pamphlet stating that the region from Raša/Arsia in Istria (part of the Austrian half of the Empire before the war and controlled by Italy from 1918 on) to Vinodol in the Croatian Littoral (in the Hungarian half of the Empire and part of the semi-autonomous Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia before the war, controlled by the Kingdom of SCS after 1918) had to become a territory with self-government, controlled by an administrative organ delegated by the Italians of Fiume, Hungary, and Yugoslavia, that is, the Kingdom of SCS.<sup data-fn="f1823ffb-64c5-444f-87e3-e515b93e258d" class="fn"><a href="#f1823ffb-64c5-444f-87e3-e515b93e258d" id="f1823ffb-64c5-444f-87e3-e515b93e258d-link">68</a></sup> The Hungarian presence in this “condominium,” as Dárday named it, was justified by former Hungarian state investments, by the economic importance of Fiume for the hinterland, and by the stability Hungary could provide in a territory disputed between Italy and Yugoslavia. Dárday’s proposal, as we will see, had similarities with another free state concept, but was more marginal. Contingent events are again the key to understanding why that solution was unfeasible. With revolution, counter-revolution, and the reduction of the Kingdom of Hungary to a third of its pre-war size after 1920, the Hungarian state faced internal and external challenges that precluded any significant initiatives regarding Fiume. And Hungarians in Fiume flowed out, much as their state had. By the time of the December 1918 census, the Hungarian-speaking population had fallen by 2,000, resulting in the disappearance of many of the 1915 pro-Hungarian elements from the political arena and the accusation that some of them had Bolshevik tendencies—something that was not viewed favourably by the Italian occupation authorities.<sup data-fn="ce6b0d03-6105-4f06-9838-a2430c3aacf3" class="fn"><a href="#ce6b0d03-6105-4f06-9838-a2430c3aacf3" id="ce6b0d03-6105-4f06-9838-a2430c3aacf3-link">69</a></sup> The vacuum opened by the disappearance of the Hungarian state and more generally the Habsburg Empire was partly filled by the (re)emerging Autonomist movement.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Returning to the immediate post-war weeks, another challenger to the Italian National Council materialized in the political arena. In November 1918, Ruggero Gottardi/Gotthardi (Fiume, 1882–Diano Marina, 1954), a former Habsburg military officer and hitherto a politically unengaged trader, published an open letter questioning the Italian National Council’s political legitimacy and advocating a free state solution for the city instead. From 1919 on, this included an enlarged territory of roughly the same extent as Dárday’s plan.<sup data-fn="d9164bd0-ff66-4ab5-97b1-30a6cbd12e5b" class="fn"><a href="#d9164bd0-ff66-4ab5-97b1-30a6cbd12e5b" id="d9164bd0-ff66-4ab5-97b1-30a6cbd12e5b-link">70</a></sup> Though in his letter Gotthardi was open to Fiume becoming a South Slavic protectorate if that would protect the city’s autonomous rights, the text’s crucial element was its emphasis on Fiumian patriotism. As he put it, true Fiumians were of different ethnic origins but Italian speakers and had to put economic interests before political divisions.<sup data-fn="98d625ed-9bfb-44e3-9a13-0b4ba8613cb6" class="fn"><a href="#98d625ed-9bfb-44e3-9a13-0b4ba8613cb6" id="98d625ed-9bfb-44e3-9a13-0b4ba8613cb6-link">71</a></sup> Thus the city’s mainly Italian character was implicit for Gotthardi, but he maintained that national character was not antithetic to economic interests and the freedom of other nationalities within Fiume. The Italian National Council’s annexation plans were contested from this same system of ideas: the city’s historical existence as a <em>corpus separatum</em> and its specific national/multinational character. While for the Italian annexationist elite the historical experience of municipal autonomy was the justification for Fiume’s annexation to Italy, for Gottardhi that was exactly why the city should be independent.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Regarding their social extraction, Gotthardi’s political faction was made up of traders, figures employed in maritime businesses, and some Fiumian patrician families, and his option was even supported by dock workers.<sup data-fn="76561aac-3476-4cd4-8563-856556509aff" class="fn"><a href="#76561aac-3476-4cd4-8563-856556509aff" id="76561aac-3476-4cd4-8563-856556509aff-link">72</a></sup>&nbsp;According to a report from the Autonomist Democrat Party’s general congress held in August 1919, the number of party delegates rose to 121.<sup data-fn="8417f945-e99a-4f14-ad5a-a251007f2a9b" class="fn"><a href="#8417f945-e99a-4f14-ad5a-a251007f2a9b" id="8417f945-e99a-4f14-ad5a-a251007f2a9b-link">73</a></sup> The congress’s low numbers were compensated by the 950 Fiumian voters—over a third of the pre-1918 electorate—who sent a request to Paris in May 1919 to internationalize Fiume. The Autonomist Democrats’ lack of political followers has to be related to Gotthardi’s political inexperience; Gotthardi himself was not keen on engaging in politics. In a political flyer published after the coup d’état of March 1922, he stated that his party was named “Autonomist Democrat” in hope of having as its leader the one “who always wanted the full liberty of Fiume: Zanella.”<sup data-fn="ecafa700-80cb-4de9-b475-64ab82b8206a" class="fn"><a href="#ecafa700-80cb-4de9-b475-64ab82b8206a" id="ecafa700-80cb-4de9-b475-64ab82b8206a-link">74</a></sup> Gotthardi’s idea of an independent state and the Fiumian Socialists’ agenda certainly had an impact on the population. According to a British report from May 1919, aside from the Croatian and Italian annexation option, roughly one third of the population of Fiume and Sušak favoured the free state solution.<sup data-fn="67d291b8-a04c-431a-baaf-8b1933993258" class="fn"><a href="#67d291b8-a04c-431a-baaf-8b1933993258" id="67d291b8-a04c-431a-baaf-8b1933993258-link">75</a></sup> A few weeks later, this option seemed achievable: the French–Italian conflict resulted in the July violence and its victims, the consequent forced departure of most Italian armed forces, the planned arrival of police officers from Malta, and potential British support represented a moment when the free state solution had the strongest prospects of realization.<sup data-fn="04748cd5-ec14-4bf9-b03a-75091d5c2abf" class="fn"><a href="#04748cd5-ec14-4bf9-b03a-75091d5c2abf" id="04748cd5-ec14-4bf9-b03a-75091d5c2abf-link">76</a></sup> This is largely why the Italian National Council needed D’Annunzio, or another figure, to keep the idea of annexation to Italy afloat.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Still, in 1918 and 1919, the majority of the Fiumian political elite aligned themselves with the Italian National Council. They clearly considered annexation the likeliest, fastest, and simplest solution. Their Italian national engagement could help them maintain the positions of power they had held previously.<sup data-fn="42972020-9399-4c49-84e6-eccc20e9fdbc" class="fn"><a href="#42972020-9399-4c49-84e6-eccc20e9fdbc" id="42972020-9399-4c49-84e6-eccc20e9fdbc-link">77</a></sup> The Socialists had opposed annexation, in part because they wanted to overthrow the existing liberal system with a class-based one, but also for national and economic reasons. The latter issue was the same reason why Gotthardi’s party had been created in the first place. The Autonomist Democrats believed that Fiume could not flourish without a larger hinterland and, moreover, could not fend off Trieste’s economic rivalry. The working class and the lower-middle and middle classes would be hit hard by the city’s shift from Hungary’s main port to a peripheral Italian town. Further, they acknowledged that the population was not only made up of Italians, and that the Italians of Fiume were different from those within the Kingdom of Italy. All these contradictions cannot be understood without considering a key figure in the entire transition period: Riccardo Zanella.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Riccardo Zanella was the main local political figure in the Habsburg era, the leader of the Autonomist Party from 1901, elected twice as the Fiumian deputy to the Hungarian Parliament, and chosen by the municipal council as mayor in 1914—though, as we have seen, his election was not confirmed by higher authorities. For more than a decade, Zanella and his party monopolized the civic administration and city affairs. As a professional politician, Zanella had a mass following and managed to present himself publicly as a man of the people, in contrast to other local politicians. Frequently advocating the idea of universal (male?) suffrage, he had the broadest range of sympathizers across class and linguistic divides. During the World War, he was sent to the front, captured in Russia in 1916, and then, upon being sent to Italy, began representing the Italians of Fiume in Italy. When the Habsburg Empire fell, Zanella was still in Italy, far from Fiume, and thereby did not participate in the initial formation of the Italian National Council. Nonetheless, quickly and quite publicly the council offered Zanella an official position. Zanella returned in December 1918 and was welcomed by a meeting organized by the Italian National Council. At that meeting, attended by a large crowd, Zanella declared himself explicitly in favour of the city’s annexation to the Italian “motherland,” arguing that Fiume would still become a maritime outlet for other nations.<sup data-fn="8d7fad85-4c52-45e1-b430-61a63dd330d4" class="fn"><a href="#8d7fad85-4c52-45e1-b430-61a63dd330d4" id="8d7fad85-4c52-45e1-b430-61a63dd330d4-link">78</a></sup> Even if many of his contemporaries considered his speech a little temperate in terms of annexationist fervour, no one doubted that he was aligning himself with the annexationists.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As time passed, however, Zanella came into conflict with some of the Italian National Council’s personalities. The rifts were not ideological, but personal. Zanella resented not being given leadership within the Council—and not having exponents of his wing in the Autonomist Party as members of the National Council Executive Committee—and so quickly became the champion of the free-state movement.<sup data-fn="a56302f9-8f3a-41e3-87a1-92f448800774" class="fn"><a href="#a56302f9-8f3a-41e3-87a1-92f448800774" id="a56302f9-8f3a-41e3-87a1-92f448800774-link">79</a></sup> Zanella’s “flexible” political leanings were apparent to all between 1918 and 1920. As Gotthardi wrote in a flyer published after the March 1922 coup, in May 1919, Zanella stood on the annexationist side, allegedly hoping to become a prefect of a Fiumian province, given the hoped-for extension of the Italian administrative system to the city. In September 1919, when D’Annunzio marched into Fiume, Zanella backed the poet-soldier, hoping to become the political chief of the town.<sup data-fn="c69f0643-daee-46a8-832f-756df68cb58a" class="fn"><a href="#c69f0643-daee-46a8-832f-756df68cb58a" id="c69f0643-daee-46a8-832f-756df68cb58a-link">80</a></sup> Undoubtedly, Zanella had strong ambitions and a very high political appeal, proven at the Constituent Assembly elections. Despite divergent electoral results—and a lack of precision—the Autonomist coalition undoubtedly achieved a great victory.<sup data-fn="2adb7dbb-9c2d-4533-9e24-ffb638cfb8a9" class="fn"><a href="#2adb7dbb-9c2d-4533-9e24-ffb638cfb8a9" id="2adb7dbb-9c2d-4533-9e24-ffb638cfb8a9-link">81</a></sup> Certainly, the desire for stability contributed to Zanella’s victory, but his political potential and knowledge were key elements of his coalition’s achievement. The Autonomist coalition had at least fifteen former municipal deputies, including Zanella himself, and a few figures with family members as former deputies.<sup data-fn="efe7b2eb-ee25-45fe-b890-801848469c40" class="fn"><a href="#efe7b2eb-ee25-45fe-b890-801848469c40" id="efe7b2eb-ee25-45fe-b890-801848469c40-link">82</a></sup>&nbsp;Thus, Zanella could still count on former Autonomist Party followers with their economic capital and social resources. This is also why there were cases of Italian National Council members that passed over to Zanella’s side.<sup data-fn="ea2b4a98-ac2e-4c81-b326-dd963f856610" class="fn"><a href="#ea2b4a98-ac2e-4c81-b326-dd963f856610" id="ea2b4a98-ac2e-4c81-b326-dd963f856610-link">83</a></sup>&nbsp;Nevertheless, Zanella’s triumph could not be completed without mass support obtained by gathering individuals from the lower and middle classes and by presenting the bloc as a genuinely popular faction opposing local high society.<sup data-fn="01dbe963-ff21-4f3e-8d76-a32bff6ee8c6" class="fn"><a href="#01dbe963-ff21-4f3e-8d76-a32bff6ee8c6" id="01dbe963-ff21-4f3e-8d76-a32bff6ee8c6-link">84</a></sup> The annexationist National Bloc was certainly not elitist, but the main candidates were prominent and established figures in the local community, such as Antonio Grossich, Andrea Ossoinack, and Antonio Vio. They also included former irredentists and emerging figures of what would become the new fascist post-annexation elite.<sup data-fn="9ac5fc07-a628-40e1-8f0d-bfa4319e0c93" class="fn"><a href="#9ac5fc07-a628-40e1-8f0d-bfa4319e0c93" id="9ac5fc07-a628-40e1-8f0d-bfa4319e0c93-link">85</a></sup></p>



<p>Zanella’s democratic victory transformed into an unconstitutional defeat, for the free state option was no longer in the international interest. Lacking real support from the Italian state, which was fundamentally interested in annexing Fiume, and with the city lacking any armed forces of its own, the free state option was hard to realize. Thus, local nationalists and even more so local Fascists became the main political elite, physically and symbolically ousting the advocates of a free state solution. Although various Autonomists exponents returned to Fiume from exile in the Kingdom of SCS on the eve of the city’s annexation to Italy, they remained politically insignificant. On the other hand, the integration of Fiume and its (nationalistic) political elite into newly fascist Italy is still a chapter to be written.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Annexation to a nation-state as a contingent outcome&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This essay has shown that there was not a clear or straightforward evolution from previous Hungarian state loyalties to Italian annexationist nationalism, nor from autonomism to Italian nationalism. Rather, the international political situation influenced, enhanced, but also weakened certain political options. Obviously, there were political actors strongly committed to certain solutions: most Fiumian Italian army volunteers advocated annexation to Italy, yet the creation and the success of other, alternative political options was influenced by international, national, state, regional, or class support, all of which shifted greatly back and forth between late 1918 and the final resolution of the Fiumian question in 1923–24. Class-based projects, such as the Fiumian Republic under the Socialist International, or alternatives to nation-state annexation, such as Gotthardi’s project and the Free State of Fiume, could persist only when and if backed by other external factors. Since neither Italy nor the Kingdom of SCS were truly interested in supporting Fiume as an independent state and it was not a priority for other states and international actors either, supporters of a free state thus wound up on the defeated side of the post-Habsburg transition period.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, social and political transformations inside Habsburg-Hungarian society also affected the development of new and old post-1918 elites. The possibility of creating political capital in the late Habsburg period and exploiting it further after the Habsburg Empire’s downfall has to be taken into account when dealing with such a transition period. Nor should generational differences and generational shifts be forgotten. Certain minor political groups were convinced well before the First World War that the disappearance of the Empire was for the best, but most of them were young and had limited political influence. That group’s rise was rather due to the unexpected fall of the Empire in the autumn of 1918, and not vice versa.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The social and political features of the aforementioned transition period were not specific to Fiume, while the political capital accumulated by the Autonomists in the early twentieth century was probably the most characteristic component of local political history.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While before 1918 Fiumian autonomism was characterized by defence of the Italian language and self-government under Hungary, from late 1918 on it was either interpreted as proto-Italian nationalism or transformed into a struggle for self-determination and independence for the city of Fiume. Fascist violence and the fascist regime added another layer to the local political specificity. While the Autonomist-led Free State disappeared under fascist violence, the Autonomists presented themselves as antifascists and among the first victims of fascism. The endurance of Fiumian autonomism is related to the tough economic situation Fiume faced during the fascist regime as a periphery of the Italian state, and by the city’s belonging being challenged once more during the Nazi occupation (1943–45), all of which was tied to the remembrance of a prosperous past not so distant, a past when the Autonomists administered the city. Additionally, autonomism had a longer political legacy than fascism and institutionalized political legitimization thanks in large part to the 1921 elections. Thus, a variously understood notion of “autonomy” remained influential among locals until the end of the Second World War, when a new radical caesura meant a fundamental change from the Italian fascist regime and German Nazi occupation to socialist Yugoslavia.&nbsp;</p>



<p><strong>Ivan Jeličić</strong> obtained his PhD in History at the University of Trieste in 2017, defending a thesis on socialism in late Habsburg Fiume/Rijeka. From September 2018 to January 2023, he was a postdoc researcher within the European Research Council (ERC) project “NEPOSTRANS: Negotiating post-imperial transitions,” based at the Institute of Political History in Budapest. From February 2023 he is Assistant Professor (docent) at the Department of Italian Studies Department of the Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences in Rijeka. He collaborates on the project Rijeka in Flux: Borders and Urban Change after World War II, an international and interdisciplinary research project initiated by the University of British Columbia, Okanagan. His research interests are the political and social transformations between the 19th and 20th centuries and transition processes from the Habsburg Empire to the new states in the Upper Adriatic, particularly in the Rijeka area.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p></p>


<ol class="wp-block-footnotes"><li id="90ea26b6-c725-4a92-81e4-d142c9b1ccd5">In the text I will refer to the city as Fiume and not Rijeka, since the term Rijeka can semantically include a larger territory than Fiume as a <em>corpus separatum</em>. <a href="#90ea26b6-c725-4a92-81e4-d142c9b1ccd5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 1 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ea526ee6-fc16-41eb-8683-8c4398ab504c">For a recent detailed account of the D’Annunzian period, see Federico Carlo Simonelli: D’Annunzio e il mito di Fiume. Riti, simboli, narrazioni [D’Annunzio and the Myth of Fiume. Rituals, Symbols, and Narratives]. Pisa 2021. <a href="#ea526ee6-fc16-41eb-8683-8c4398ab504c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 2 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="12c59c67-b277-458d-b436-a59cc8a9f580">For the social, legal, and economic aspects of Fiume’s post-imperial transition up to 1921, see Dominique Kirchner Reill: The Fiume Crisis. Life in the Wake of the Habsburg Empire. Cambridge, Massachusetts 2020. <a href="#12c59c67-b277-458d-b436-a59cc8a9f580-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 3 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9a816cc4-b1b0-4338-b757-d85a32e3a0d3">Danilo Klen (ed.): Povijest Rijeke [The History of Rijeka]. Rijeka 1988, p. 285. <a href="#9a816cc4-b1b0-4338-b757-d85a32e3a0d3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 4 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="2073f79d-b510-4527-a77f-65ee30e6d2c2">Klen: Povijest Rijeke, p. 290.  <a href="#2073f79d-b510-4527-a77f-65ee30e6d2c2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 5 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6032df0f-f14e-4704-a71d-f9c285e7dc1b">Silvino Gigante: Storia del Comune di Fiume [The History of the Municipality of Fiume]. Florence 1929. For a recent Italian-language monograph focused on city’s 20th century, mostly the first half, see Raoul Pupo: Fiume città di passione [Fiume City of Passion]. Bari–Rome 2018.  <a href="#6032df0f-f14e-4704-a71d-f9c285e7dc1b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 6 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="41384b03-d375-4f97-89b1-cb87f0c69919">On national indifference, see Tara Zahra: Imagined Noncommunities. National Indifference as a Category of Analysis. In: Slavic Review 69 (2010) 1, pp. 93–119 and Tara Zahra, Pieter M. Judson: Sites of Indifference to Nationhood. In: Austrian History Yearbook 43 (2012), pp. 21–27. <a href="#41384b03-d375-4f97-89b1-cb87f0c69919-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 7 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d75e063e-0491-43d6-9f08-917f111c131a">“Elites” are defined as that “small group of persons who exercise disproportionate power and influence” and who, thanks to their location in powerful institutions, organizations, and movements, are able to shape or influence political outcomes. See John Higley: “Elites,” In: Encyclopedia Britannica, &lt;<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/elite-sociology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.britannica.com/topic/elite-sociology</a>>, 17.1.2023. By contrast, challengers are simply defined as those who contest elites’ positions. <a href="#d75e063e-0491-43d6-9f08-917f111c131a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 8 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="10a98e88-7af3-418a-9ce8-4920a692a68f">Erez Manela: The Wilsonian Moment. Self Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism. New York 2007. <a href="#10a98e88-7af3-418a-9ce8-4920a692a68f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 9 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e2024966-920e-4d43-a780-174fdfc498ae">On rethinking the end of the Habsburg Empire, see P. M. Judson: The Habsburg Empire. A New History. Cambridge (MA), London 2016, pp. 385–453; P. Judson: “Where our commonality is necessary…”. Rethinking the End of the Habsburg Monarchy. In: Austrian History Yearbook 48 (2017), pp. 1–21. See also: Jernej Kosi: Summer of 1919: A Radical, Irreversible, Liberating Break in Prekmurje/Muravidék? In: Hungarian Historical Review, 9 (2020) 1, pp. 51–68 and Gábor Egry: Negotiating Post-imperial Transitions. Local Societies and Nationalizing States in East Central Europe. In: Paul Miller, Claire Morelon (eds.): Embers of Empire. Continuity and Rupture in the Habsburg Successor States after 1918. New York 2019, pp. 15–42.  <a href="#e2024966-920e-4d43-a780-174fdfc498ae-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 10 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="73b096e0-5441-478f-ac17-f4def9d82266">For Fiume’s regional identification before Dualism, see Mario Maritan: National Indeterminacies at the Periphery of the Habsburg Monarchy: Nationalisms versus Multi‐ethnic Identities in Fiume/Rijeka and Trieste, 1848–1867. In: Nations and Nationalism, 27, 1, 2020, pp. 1–15. <a href="#73b096e0-5441-478f-ac17-f4def9d82266-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 11 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f236158d-6bd0-47ca-a7c2-cc31c9bfc867">Ljubinka Karpowicz: Riječki corpus separatum 1868–1924 [Rijeka’s Corpus Separatum 1868–1924]. Ljubljana 1986; W. Klinger: Negotiating the Nation. Fiume: from Autonomism to State Making (1848–1924). Fiesole 2007. <a href="#f236158d-6bd0-47ca-a7c2-cc31c9bfc867-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 12 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6f7bdb05-6834-41bc-8f2a-2493f7162d7a">In the 1904 elections for the Fiumian deputy to the House of Representatives, around 6% of the entire population were eligible to vote (2.550 out of almost 39,000 according to the census of 1900). See: Le elezioni municipali – Le liste elettorali [The Municipal Elections – the Election Lists]. In: La Bilancia [The Balance], 20 February 1904, p. 2. <a href="#6f7bdb05-6834-41bc-8f2a-2493f7162d7a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 13 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1447c7ca-60a7-4945-9af3-329921406152">According to the last Hungarian census, the population per mother tongue was divided as follows: 48.6% Italians, 26% Croatians, 13% Hungarians, 4.6% Germans, 4.7% Slovenes, and 3% others. Again, according to that census, more than 20% of the entire population (including those who spoke Hungarian as their mother tongue) knew the Hungarian language. See: A Magyar Szent Korona Országainak 1910. évi népszámlálása [The 1910 Census of the Countries of the Hungarian Holy Crown], vol. 42. Budapest 1913, p. 42.  <a href="#1447c7ca-60a7-4945-9af3-329921406152-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 14 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6805a662-11d7-4e27-b405-e4826ec84269">On Zanella, see Amleto Ballarini: L’antidannunzio a Fiume. Riccardo Zanella [The Anti-D’Annunzio in Fiume. Riccardo Zanella]. Trieste 1995.  <a href="#6805a662-11d7-4e27-b405-e4826ec84269-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 15 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="dbc9ca5f-dd93-4a39-b1f6-16a0ba55aa89">For an interesting study of the border police in Fiume, as part of the Budapest vs. Fiume conflict, see Ágnes Ordasi: Borderline Syndrome in Fiume. The Clash of Local and Imperial Interests. In: Hungarian Historical Review<em> </em>11 (2022), 2, pp. 387–421.  <a href="#dbc9ca5f-dd93-4a39-b1f6-16a0ba55aa89-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 16 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e2f1b395-e169-4f77-acfc-7125b3759ecd">Edoardo Susmel: La Città di passione. Fiume negli anni 1914–1920 [The City of Passion. Fiume in the Years 1914–1920]. Milan 1921. <a href="#e2f1b395-e169-4f77-acfc-7125b3759ecd-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 17 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8b42fb2a-6ad2-42fc-82b7-1d4d40e89a8c">For a critical overview of Ossoinack’s biography, see Krešimir Sučević Međeral: Businessman – The Case of the Ossoinack Family and Fiume. In: Collegium antropologicum, 41 (2017), p. 4, pp. 351–361.  <a href="#8b42fb2a-6ad2-42fc-82b7-1d4d40e89a8c-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 18 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0671ef3e-fff6-4d83-a6c8-1edf18eb9232">Original: “(…) la migliore tutela di tutto questo patrimonio, noi lo troveremo soltanto nella fiducia verso la Nazione e nello attaccamento sincero allo Stato ungarico che ha fatto sorgere e fiorire questa città. In: Avvisatore ufficiale del Municipio di Fiume, Protocollo V [Official Announcer of Rijeka Municapility, Protocol V], 2 September 1915, p. 2. <a href="#0671ef3e-fff6-4d83-a6c8-1edf18eb9232-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 19 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8465a771-3c2e-4de1-bdcf-5943b40c69b7"> Ballarini: L‘antidannunzio a Fiume, pp. 95–96. <a href="#8465a771-3c2e-4de1-bdcf-5943b40c69b7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 20 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b4b4f81d-210e-4ecf-b38c-40a5d01aeda4">For the wartime period in Fiume, albeit from a post-war Italian propaganda perspective, see E. Susmel: La Città di passione. <a href="#b4b4f81d-210e-4ecf-b38c-40a5d01aeda4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 21 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a14672bf-60a1-4d99-9d1c-72777ffca054">I candidati ai seggi rappresentatizzi [The Candidates to the Council Seats]. In: Il Giornale [The Newspaper], 26 September 1918, p. 2. <a href="#a14672bf-60a1-4d99-9d1c-72777ffca054-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 22 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4e184054-a4cf-4c9e-ae34-8af0984274ca">Around 300 people voted. See Elezioni suppletiorie [ Supplementary elections]. In: Ibid., 28 September 1918, p. 2. For comparison, in the by-elections of 1907 around 500 voted. See Ancora sull’elezione di ieri [More on the Election of Yesterday]. In: La Bilancia, 25 May 1907, pp. 1–2. <a href="#4e184054-a4cf-4c9e-ae34-8af0984274ca-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 23 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6c5a6a0f-d674-40f9-99dd-09a1c08babce">Antonella Ercolani: Da Fiume a Rijeka. Profilo storico-politico dal 1918 al 1947 [From Fiume to Rijeka. Political-historical Profile from 1918 to 1947]. Soveria Manelli 2009, p. 55. <a href="#6c5a6a0f-d674-40f9-99dd-09a1c08babce-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 24 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="617f6c78-3be6-438a-83e5-78c6d71e2e3b">I gravi fatti di ieri [Yesterday’s Serious Events]. In: Il Giornale, 24 October 1918, p. 2. <a href="#617f6c78-3be6-438a-83e5-78c6d71e2e3b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 25 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6c063ea1-dbfd-427f-9c38-aea9fb111075">L’ora storica di Fiume [The Historical Hour of Fiume]. In: Ibid., 28 October 1918, p. 2.  <a href="#6c063ea1-dbfd-427f-9c38-aea9fb111075-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 26 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="7f869bed-4e9b-46b7-8f42-6936155c0dcd">Il momento storico di Fiume [The Historical Moment of Fiume]. In: Ibid., 29 October 1918, p. 2. <a href="#7f869bed-4e9b-46b7-8f42-6936155c0dcd-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 27 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="876fa853-39c5-4b8c-90a6-814fbf07ded1">For the list of members of the Committee of the SCS National Council of Rijeka–Sušak, see Nenad Labus, Viktor Ružić: “Moje uspomene [My Recollections].” In: Dometi [Ranges], 19 (1986) 4, p. 61. <a href="#876fa853-39c5-4b8c-90a6-814fbf07ded1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 28 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d2ef8b27-6b7a-490e-9673-7ccc933ff4af">According to Željko Bartulović, when the Croatian <em>Sabor</em> dissolved all ties with Hungary, the former governor was no longer recognized by the Croatian authorities as a representative of an existing authority. Thus, Lenac did not replace the Hungarian governor, but assumed a newly established office. See: Željko Bartulović: Talijanska okupacija Sušaka 1918. – 1923. [The Italian occupation of Sušak, 1918–1923]. In: Ivan Jurković (ed.): Bertošin Zbornik<em> </em>[Essays in Honor of Miroslav Bertoša], Vol. 3, Pazin-Pula, 2013, p. 166.  <a href="#d2ef8b27-6b7a-490e-9673-7ccc933ff4af-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 29 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="68518def-1cf9-4075-a43b-04716b79fe98">La polizia di stato sospende la sua attività [The Police Interrupts Its Activities]. In: Il Giornale, 29 October 1918, p. 2 <a href="#68518def-1cf9-4075-a43b-04716b79fe98-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 30 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0bd97db8-48f3-406e-b771-8d20b6e6da4f">As Klinger notes, he could do that because the Italian National Council was recognized by the Italian authorities as the administrative continuation of the municipal council. W. Klinger: Germania e Fiume. La questione fiumana nella diplomazia tedesca [Germany and Fiume. The Question of Fiume in German Diplomacy]. Trieste 2011, pp. 20–21. <a href="#0bd97db8-48f3-406e-b771-8d20b6e6da4f-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 31 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4fa2cab7-5979-41f5-8c5f-72773364aa06">See Enrico Serventi Longhi: The Father of ‘Sovereignism’: d’Annunzio in Fiume between the Crisis <br>of Liberalism and the Critique of Democracy. In: Modern Italy 27 (2022), pp. 35–47.  <a href="#4fa2cab7-5979-41f5-8c5f-72773364aa06-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 32 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="cad8065b-216c-4fa7-8f93-f74593f857a0">See the list of 284 members and another 11 ad honorem published in Danilo L. Massagrande (ed.): I verbali del Consiglio Nazionale Italiano di Fiume e del Comitato Direttivo [The Records of the Italian National Council of Fiume and the Directive Committee]. Rome 2014, pp. 558–561. <a href="#cad8065b-216c-4fa7-8f93-f74593f857a0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 33 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1459df76-712e-4055-846f-655b8cf2d0a3">See the list published in Massagrande (ed.): I verbali del Consiglio Nazionale Italiano, p. 561. I have excluded the Italian poet Sem Benelli from the counts. <a href="#1459df76-712e-4055-846f-655b8cf2d0a3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 34 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="afe14d5d-372a-48f6-89d2-7c766729d9b6">There are no publications that collect all the local electoral results for the entire Dualistic period. A partial exemption is Elezioni per le cessate rappresentanze [Elections for the Ceased Councils], without place or date of publication, and attributed to Stanislao Dall’Asta, with mainly handwritten names of deputies until 1904. For the other elections I rely on newspaper articles: Elezioni suppletorie [Supplementary elections]. In: La Bilancia, 27 December 1905, p. 2; Ancora sull’elezione di ieri [More on the election of yesterday]. In: Ibid., 25 May 1907, pp. 1–2; Le elezioni di oggi [The elections of today]. In: La Bilancia, 30 December 1908, p. 1; Le elezioni di ieri [Yesterday’s elections]. In: Ibid., 14 April 1910, pp. 1–2; La città ha parlato. L’opinione pubblica ha trionfato [The city has spoken. The public option triumphed]. In: Ibid., 16 May 1911, pp. 1–2; Le elezioni amministrative suppletorie. La vittoria della Lega autonoma [The supplementary local elections. The victory of the Autonomist League]. In: Ibid., 30 December 1912, p. 1; Confusionismo [Confusions]. In: Ibid., 28 February 1914, p. 2 and Gradski izbori na Rieci [Local Elections in Rijeka]. In: Novi List<em> </em>[New List], 27 July 1915, p. 2.  <a href="#afe14d5d-372a-48f6-89d2-7c766729d9b6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 35 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d17eb9f7-5061-4365-a566-56658dc7f6ed">In brackets the year of their last election: Antonio Grossich (1914), Giovanni Schittar (1914), Adolfo Gotthardi (1914), Lionello Lenaz (1910), Silvino Gigante (1907), and Isidoro Garofolo (1904). Annibale Blau, Elpidio Spiringhetti, Salvatore Bellasich, and Francesco Codrich had not previously been members of a municipal council. <a href="#d17eb9f7-5061-4365-a566-56658dc7f6ed-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 36 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d62a4706-593c-47fc-93f8-2077a0d3c669">Francesco Gilberto Corossacz, Giovanni Rubinich, Andrea Ossoinack, Ugo Venuti, and Antonio Vio were elected in 1915. John Stiglich had last been elected in 1914, while Luigi Nicolich and Gino Sirola had not previously been members of a municipal council. <a href="#d62a4706-593c-47fc-93f8-2077a0d3c669-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 37 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a9dcb9b4-2321-46c6-987a-86a25d016e81">Attilio Prodam, Idone Rudan and Icilio Baccich were chosen as members. The father of Attilio Prodam, Giovanni Prodam, had been elected a councillor in 1915, as had Idone Rudan&#8217;s cousin, Aldo Rudan. Baccich Icilio and Rudan Idone had both been elected councillors in 1910.  <a href="#a9dcb9b4-2321-46c6-987a-86a25d016e81-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 38 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c2146c4b-2220-40d4-b8a2-a013e578e0c3">Riccardo Gigante (Fiume, 1881–1945), Mario Blasich (Fiume, 1875–1945), Giovanni (Nino) Host-Venturi (Fiume, 1892–Buenos Aires, 1980), Enrico Burich (Fiume, 1889–Modena, 1965) and Iti Baccich (Sušak, 1892–Rome, 1954). For short biographies of these figures, see Salvatore Samani: Dizionario biografico fiumano [Biographical Dictionary of Fiume], Dolo Venezia 1976, pp. 30–31, pp. 38–40, pp. 43–46, pp. 64–68 and pp. 79–83. <a href="#c2146c4b-2220-40d4-b8a2-a013e578e0c3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 39 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ce4f10db-cf1f-40b6-b842-7a1559c0d33e">Riccardo Gigante and Giovanni (Gino) Sirola were candidates for the Italian Youth in 1911. Gigante: Storia del Comune di Fiume, p. 144. <a href="#ce4f10db-cf1f-40b6-b842-7a1559c0d33e-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 40 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="1d36256c-c7f8-4ffc-ba7d-6274d591b70d">Annibale Blau, Salvatore Bellasich, Attilio Prodam, Nino Host Venturi, Enrico Burich and Iti Baccich appear in the list published by Attilio Prodam: Gli Argonauti del Carnaro, pp. 371–378. <a href="#1d36256c-c7f8-4ffc-ba7d-6274d591b70d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 41 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="84cecadb-327f-4e4d-a333-0fd0bd29ba2b">Luigi Nicolich and Elpidio Springhetti appear as members of Circolo letterario [Literature Circle] from 1911 to 1914. See Archivio Società di Studi fiumani-Roma, 4/64 bis, Circolo Letterario di Fiume, invitations to congresses of the society with list of members, 1911–1914. <a href="#84cecadb-327f-4e4d-a333-0fd0bd29ba2b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 42 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="af7e94e6-735d-4e89-b204-f9dea672a6cb">For some considerations on this group, see Ljubinka Toševa Karpowicz, The “State of Rijeka” of the Italian National Council (23 November 1918-12 September 1919). In: Angela Ilić, Florian Kührer-Wielach, Irena Samide, and Tanja Žigon (eds): Blick ins Ungewisse: Visionen und Utopien im Donau-Karpaten-Raum 1917 und danach. Verlag Friedrich Pustet: Regensburg, 2019. <a href="#af7e94e6-735d-4e89-b204-f9dea672a6cb-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 43 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e1bf29e9-780c-48bc-8b6b-c415ecc72060">Grossich Antonio. In Samani: Dizionario biografico fiumano, pp. 71–77. <a href="#e1bf29e9-780c-48bc-8b6b-c415ecc72060-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 44 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ea9d4935-a065-424b-b136-123e3a1736ad">See also the critique of Vio’s previous political engagement noted by Henry Baerlein, who labelled him “the turncoat mayor”. Henry Baerlein, The Birth Of Yugoslavia, Volume II. London 1922, pp. 57–59.  <a href="#ea9d4935-a065-424b-b136-123e3a1736ad-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 45 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0b0bf812-a200-4d00-b7f7-4679ec0e1d48">Nuove edizioni [New editions]. In: Primorske novine, 6 February 1919, p. 3. <a href="#0b0bf812-a200-4d00-b7f7-4679ec0e1d48-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 46 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="66435e88-6623-44b8-b3c9-3e30dd9260bf">Lj. Karpowicz: Rijeka pod vlašću Talijanskog nacionalnog vijeća (23.XI.1918. – 21.IX.1919.) [Rijeka under Italian National Council Rule]. In: Sušačka revija [Sušačka Magazine] (2018), p. 107. <a href="#66435e88-6623-44b8-b3c9-3e30dd9260bf-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 47 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="dfcb4eda-0cdc-4542-b066-89bce8cd2942">See the accusation in<em> </em>Tønnes Ore: Indeficienter. Questioni di politica fiumana [Fiumian political issues]. Fiume 1920, pp. 6–11. <a href="#dfcb4eda-0cdc-4542-b066-89bce8cd2942-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 48 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="57f52066-fcc6-4622-a7c7-0b15e6b3d3db">What should be stressed is the different participation rates between the urban district and the suburban districts. Jointly, 68% of the electorate voted. In the city, however, almost 76% voted, compared to 55% in the suburban districts. The Italian newspaper emphasized that 80% of the electorate voted for the list, since some deceased or absentees were still on the electoral roll. See: Il voto di ieri afferma dinanzi al mondo folle e vile la volontà di Fiume: Annessione [Yesterday’s ballot affirms the crazy and worthless world of Fiume’s will: Annexation]. In: La Vedetta d‘Italia [Italian Lookout], 28 October 1918, p. 2. On the position of women in Rijeka, see Francesca Rolandi: A never requested triumph? Reframing gender boundaries in Fiume and Sušak after 1918. In: Italia contemporanea Yearbook, 2020, pp. 11–36.  <a href="#57f52066-fcc6-4622-a7c7-0b15e6b3d3db-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 49 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="b60d4779-1749-4550-95e4-5cf969ff6564">Ore: Indeficienter. Questioni di politica fiumana, pp. 26–28.  <a href="#b60d4779-1749-4550-95e4-5cf969ff6564-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 50 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="2f5daa3c-60e0-45e5-9920-84791f5a9318">See the candidates’ names, generally with their occupation, published in: La Vedetta d’Italia<em> </em>[Italian Post], 25 October 1919, p. 2.  <a href="#2f5daa3c-60e0-45e5-9920-84791f5a9318-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 51 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="6ff856c7-4d31-422b-b62c-7d8c4e879458">Adriano Cattalinich (1918), Attilio Depoli (1914), Isidoro Garofolo (1904), Antonio Grossich (1914), Luigi Maroth (1914), Ariosto Mini (1914), Edoardo Mondolfo (1902), Andrea Ossoinack (1915), Ugo Pagan (1911), Giuseppe Pus (1907), Idone Rudan (1910), Giovanni Schittar (1901), Giuseppe Sussain (1901), Stefano Tuchtan (1912), Giovanni Villich (1910), and Pietro Zandegiacomo (1901). <a href="#6ff856c7-4d31-422b-b62c-7d8c4e879458-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 52 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3ed00831-679f-4a8b-bb56-7c15b05e2264">Iti Baccich’s brother, Carlo Brazzoduro’s father or brother, Riccardo Gigante’s brother, and Attilio Prodam’s father. There is also a case of a civil deputy Serdoz, but this surname was quite common at that time in Fiume. <a href="#3ed00831-679f-4a8b-bb56-7c15b05e2264-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 53 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="161e72c0-4eba-4cf4-ab2c-0cba6e1ba3a7">Members of the Giovine Fiume included Salvatore Bellasich, Annibale Blau, Carlo Colussi, Carlo Conighi, Vittorio Farina, Riccardo Gigante, Giovanni (Nino) Host Venturi, Clemente Marassi, Carlo Minca, Attilio Prodam, and Giovanni Rusich. It is interesting to note that Vittorio Farina, one of the founders of Giovine Fiume, had been a member of the local socialist movement during the late Habsburg era.  <a href="#161e72c0-4eba-4cf4-ab2c-0cba6e1ba3a7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 54 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="20b17cef-4a19-4cc5-98a6-5d324ca14f0d">For the list of candidates with their professions, see La Vedetta d’Italia, 22 April 1921, p. 2. <a href="#20b17cef-4a19-4cc5-98a6-5d324ca14f0d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 55 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f8fea78d-3f1a-438b-80b2-4d3c46f9e8d2">This is the case of Annibale Blau. Additionally, Raimondo Kucich’s wife and brother were members of the Italian National Council in 1919, while he was the candidate of the Independentist Bloc in 1921. It is interesting to note that, in the 1921 elections, the Klinz family split: the father was with the Nationalists, while the son stood for the Independentists. <a href="#f8fea78d-3f1a-438b-80b2-4d3c46f9e8d2-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 56 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9a5beed5-22a3-40db-bbe2-dc28b56c60e5">For a list of parties in the annexation camp, see Daniel Patafta: Privremene vlade u Rijeci (listopad 1918. – siječanj 1924.) [Provisional Government in Rijeka (October 1918 – January 1924)]. In: Časopis za suvremenu povijest [Journal of Contemporary History], 38 (1), p. 213.  <a href="#9a5beed5-22a3-40db-bbe2-dc28b56c60e5-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 57 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="fa875ec7-496e-4473-ae77-5cd9418e7bf1">Si costituisce il consiglio degli operai [The Workers’ Council is established]. In: La Bilancia, 31 October 1918, p. 1. <a href="#fa875ec7-496e-4473-ae77-5cd9418e7bf1-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 58 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8fa4d6b3-d5b3-49b4-9fe9-a0362f4a5eda">For the biographies of the members of the Workers’ Council, see Ivan Jeličić: Uz stogodišnjicu riječkog Radničkog vijeća. Klasna alternativa nacionalnim državama na sutonu Monarhije [On the Centenary of Rijeka’s Workers Council. A Class Alternative to the Nation-State at the Dusk of the Monarchy]. In: Časopis za povijest Zapadne Hrvatske [West Croatian History Journal] 12 (2017), pp. 63–85. <a href="#8fa4d6b3-d5b3-49b4-9fe9-a0362f4a5eda-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 59 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="0dabe78d-4914-4d8b-8767-5bcaa7d722bc"> Dite sul serio? [Are you serious?]. In: La Bilancia, 19 November 1918, p. 2.  <a href="#0dabe78d-4914-4d8b-8767-5bcaa7d722bc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 60 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="22da09c3-cc45-47d1-924b-2ada251cf9a0">Per l’autonomia della Cassa distrettuale di Fiume [For the autonomy of the District Fund of Fiume]: In: La Bilancia, 16 November 1918, p. 2. <a href="#22da09c3-cc45-47d1-924b-2ada251cf9a0-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 61 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="acb15b40-6850-4a34-9466-a4fbabc8d76b">In punta di penna [From the tip of the pen]. In: La Bilancia, 27 November 1918, p. 2. <a href="#acb15b40-6850-4a34-9466-a4fbabc8d76b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 62 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="4550e4bb-9011-4743-85b4-d9d50919202a">Luciano Giuricin, Mihael Sobolevski (eds.): Il Partito comunista di Fiume – Komunistička partija Rijeke 1921–1924. Documenti -Dokumenti [The Communist Party of Fiume 1921–1924. Documents]. Vol. II. Rijeka, Rovinj 1981, p. 187.  <a href="#4550e4bb-9011-4743-85b4-d9d50919202a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 63 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="3254b563-1812-4b03-9b97-290965b40613"> “(…) Fiume è un centro internazionale, un punto di confluenza di varie razze, a cui conviene un regime politico basato sulla neutralità (…) Fiume, repubblica libera ed indipendente [Fiume, free and independent republic]. In: L‘Avanti [Forward], 27 September 1919, p. 1. <a href="#3254b563-1812-4b03-9b97-290965b40613-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 64 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="49ec9ade-9b52-454a-9c8d-8c769aa4ef47">Sara Galli: Le tre sorelle Seidenfeld: Donne nell’emigrazione politica antifascista [The Three Seidenfeld Sisters. Women in Antifascist Political Emigration]. Florence–Milan, 2005 and W. Klinger: Un fronte unico da Trieste a Salonicco [A Single Front from Trieste to Thessaloníki]<em>.</em> In: Quaderni, CRS-Rovigno [Quaderni &#8211; Yearbook of the Center for Historical Research in Rovinj], 24 (2014), 227–231. Regarding the ethnicity of these families, their Jewish origins should probably be stressed more. <a href="#49ec9ade-9b52-454a-9c8d-8c769aa4ef47-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 65 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="e7403f80-31dd-49d9-aabb-a873ae06dff7">There were also some who switched sides in the following years. For instance, some members of the 1918 Socialist Workers’  Council sided with the Italian Republicans or, later, with the fascist regime. <a href="#e7403f80-31dd-49d9-aabb-a873ae06dff7-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 66 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="15a1a4eb-521e-4802-9d24-2582553b92ae"> On the last Hungarian to act as governor and on Hungarian civil servants, see Ágnes Ordasi: Egan Lajos naplója – Impériumváltások Fiumében a kormányzóhelyettes szemével (1918–-1920) [The Journal of Lajos Egan: Changes of Empire in Fiume through the Eyes of the Deputy Governor (1918–1920)]. Budapest 2019, and Á. Ordasi: “Scale e Serpenti”? Le condizioni dei rappresentanti del potere dello Stato ungherese dopo la Grande guerra. [“&#8217;Snakes and Ladders”? The Situation of the Representatives of Hungarian State Power after World War I] In: Qualestoria. Rivista di storia contemporanea [Qualestoria. Contemporary History Magazine], 48 (2020), 2, pp. 93–112.  <a href="#15a1a4eb-521e-4802-9d24-2582553b92ae-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 67 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="f1823ffb-64c5-444f-87e3-e515b93e258d">D. Dárday: The Solution of the Fiume Question. London, New York, Budapest 1920. <a href="#f1823ffb-64c5-444f-87e3-e515b93e258d-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 68 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ce6b0d03-6105-4f06-9838-a2430c3aacf3">Luigi Emilio Longo: L’esercito italiano e la questione fiumana (1918-1921) [The Italian Army and the Fiume Question (1918–1921)]. Vol. 1, Rome, 1996, pp. 86–87. <a href="#ce6b0d03-6105-4f06-9838-a2430c3aacf3-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 69 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="d9164bd0-ff66-4ab5-97b1-30a6cbd12e5b">Ljubinka Karpowicz: Biografia politica di un autonomista. Ruggero Gottardi [Political Biography of an Autonomist. Ruggero Gottardi]. In: Quaderni, Vol. VII, Rovigno 1983–84, pp. 39–64; Ruggero Gottardi: Ruggero Gottardi (Fiume, 1882–Diano Marina, 1954). In: Quaderni, Vol. XVI, Rovigno 2004, pp. 395–477. <a href="#d9164bd0-ff66-4ab5-97b1-30a6cbd12e5b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 70 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="98d625ed-9bfb-44e3-9a13-0b4ba8613cb6">Archivio Societa di Studi FIumani, Fondo Zanella: 1.4.5, Lettera aperta a tutti i veri fiumani [Open Letter to All the Real Fiumians]. <a href="#98d625ed-9bfb-44e3-9a13-0b4ba8613cb6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 71 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="76561aac-3476-4cd4-8563-856556509aff">Ivan Jeličić: Za slobodnu državu prije Slobodne Države, razmatranja o riječkoj Autonomnoj demokratskoj stranci / Per lo stato libero prima dello Stato libero, considerazioni sul Partito autonomo democratico fiumano [For a Free State before the Free State. Reflections on the Autonomous Democratic Party of Fiume], 80–100. In: Danko Švorinić (ed.), Zbornik radova s međunarodnog znanstvenog skupa povodom 100 godina od osnutka Slobodne Države Rijeka / Raccolta di atti del convegno scientifico internazionale per i 100 anni di fondazione dello Stato libero di Fiume [Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference for the Centennial of the Foundation of the Free State of Fiume], Rijeka 2021.  <a href="#76561aac-3476-4cd4-8563-856556509aff-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 72 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8417f945-e99a-4f14-ad5a-a251007f2a9b">HR-DARI-53, Riječka kvestura, Questura di Fiume, A8 – Sovversivi della Provincia, Fasicolo persnale di Percovich Giuseppe, Partito Autonomo Democratico Fiumano, Relazione del Congresso Generale. <a href="#8417f945-e99a-4f14-ad5a-a251007f2a9b-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 73 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ecafa700-80cb-4de9-b475-64ab82b8206a">HR-DARI-53, Riječka kvestura, A1 – information, personal file of Giuseppe Bruss, Concittadini! [Fellow Citizens!], no date. <a href="#ecafa700-80cb-4de9-b475-64ab82b8206a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 74 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="67d291b8-a04c-431a-baaf-8b1933993258">Klinger: Negotiating the Nation, p. 169. <a href="#67d291b8-a04c-431a-baaf-8b1933993258-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 75 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="04748cd5-ec14-4bf9-b03a-75091d5c2abf">Klinger: Germania e Fiume, p. 31. <a href="#04748cd5-ec14-4bf9-b03a-75091d5c2abf-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 76 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="42972020-9399-4c49-84e6-eccc20e9fdbc">As Dominique Kircher Reill&#8217;s book makes quite clear: Kirchner Reill: The Fiume Crisis. <a href="#42972020-9399-4c49-84e6-eccc20e9fdbc-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 77 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="8d7fad85-4c52-45e1-b430-61a63dd330d4">Il memorabile comizio di ieri. Il discorso dell’on. Zanella [Yesterday’s memorable meeting. The speech of honorable Zanella]. In: <em>La Bilancia</em>, 13 December 1918, pp. 1–2. <a href="#8d7fad85-4c52-45e1-b430-61a63dd330d4-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 78 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="a56302f9-8f3a-41e3-87a1-92f448800774">Ballarini: L’antidannunzio a Fiume, p. 117. <a href="#a56302f9-8f3a-41e3-87a1-92f448800774-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 79 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="c69f0643-daee-46a8-832f-756df68cb58a">HR-DARI-53, Riječka kvestura, A1 – information, personal file of Giuseppe Bruss, Concittadini! [Fellow Citizens!], no date. <a href="#c69f0643-daee-46a8-832f-756df68cb58a-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 80 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="2adb7dbb-9c2d-4533-9e24-ffb638cfb8a9">As Attilio Depoli counted, 6,114 voted for the Autonomists and 3,440 for the annexationists. For Zanella, the results were 8,000 to 2,800, while Gotthardi stated that the total votes were 6,478 to 3,524. Attilio Depoli: Incontri con Facta e Mussolini. Pagine fiumane dai ricordi di un dittatore involontario [Encounters with Facta and Mussolini. Fiuman Pages from the Memories of an Involuntary Dictator]. In: Attilio Depoli<em>: </em>Fiume 30 ottobre 1918. Scritti scelti [Rijeka 30 October 1918. Selected Writings], ed by Mario Dassovich, S. Giovanni in Persiceto 1982, p. 270; Ballarini: L’antidannunzio a Fiume, p. 238; Gottardi: Ruggero Gottardi, p. 443.  <a href="#2adb7dbb-9c2d-4533-9e24-ffb638cfb8a9-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 81 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="efe7b2eb-ee25-45fe-b890-801848469c40">Mario Blasich (1914), Romualdo Capudi (1914), Luigi Duimich (1914), Mario Jechel (1910), Davide Klein (1914), Ignazio Krieger (1914), Raimondo Kucich (1910), Giovanni Mahla (1914), Angelo Martich (1914), Ignazio Milcenich (1914), Donato Mohovich (1911), Matteo Paicurich (1910), Sennen Raicich (1910), Aldo Rudan (1915) and Riccardo Zanella (1914). Additionally, Giuseppe Cante’s, Giuseppe Dalmartello’s, and Dante Walluschnig’s fathers were former municipal deputies. Also, Giovanni Duimich (deceased in 1917) elected councillor in 1915, was probably related to Giovanni Duimich (Fiume, 1879), elected in 1921. There are further former representatives that were elected in 1921, but their position was slightly different since they represented the electors of the districts.  <a href="#efe7b2eb-ee25-45fe-b890-801848469c40-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 82 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="ea2b4a98-ac2e-4c81-b326-dd963f856610">Nicolò Biasi, Mario Blasich, Annibale Blau, Ernesto Branz, Romualdo Capudi, Antonio Crulcich, Giovanni Duimich, Luigi Duimich, Elmirio Frankl (Franchi), Mario Jechel, Giovanni Mahla, Ignazio Milcenich, Otmaro Peters, Leone Spetz-Quarnari, Alcide Steffich, Isidoro Turk, Dante Walluschnig, and Antonio Wolf were all members of the Italian National Council.  <a href="#ea2b4a98-ac2e-4c81-b326-dd963f856610-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 83 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="01dbe963-ff21-4f3e-8d76-a32bff6ee8c6">For the names and the professions of the Autonomist candidates, see Fiumani! [People of Fiume!]. In: Fiume dei Fiumani<em> </em>[Fiume to the People of Fiume], 23 April 1921, p. 1. <a href="#01dbe963-ff21-4f3e-8d76-a32bff6ee8c6-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 84 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li><li id="9ac5fc07-a628-40e1-8f0d-bfa4319e0c93">For the names and the professions of the annexationist bloc, see Blocco nazionale [The National Bloc]. In: La Vedetta d’Italia, 21 April 1921, p. 1. <a href="#9ac5fc07-a628-40e1-8f0d-bfa4319e0c93-link" aria-label="Zur Fußnotenreferenz 85 navigieren"><img src="https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/15.1.0/72x72/21a9.png" alt="↩" class="wp-smiley" style="height: 1em; max-height: 1em;" />︎</a></li></ol><p>Der Beitrag <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de/fiumes-political-elites-and-their-challengers-1918-1924/">Fiume’s Political Elites and Their Challengers, 1918–1924</a> erschien zuerst auf <a href="https://halbjahresschrift.de">Halbjahresschrift für Geschichte und Zeitgeschehen in Zentral- und Südosteuropa</a>.</p>
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